4. Memory I

Definition of Memory

• Memory is the means of retaining and drawing on past experiences.

• It involves dynamic mechanisms associated with:

  • Storing information

  • Retaining information

  • Retrieving information about past experiences.

Stages of Memory

• Encoding

  • Transformation of sensory data.

• Storage

  • Encoding and retaining information.

• Retrieval

  • Use of stored information.

Task for Measuring Memory

• Key Distinctions:

  • Recall vs. Recognition Tasks

  • Implicit vs. Explicit Memory Tasks

Recall vs. Recognition Tasks

• Recall:

  • Reproduction of information from memory.

• Recognition:

  • Identification of previously learned information.

Types of Recall:

• Serial Recall:

  • Requires recalling information in exact order.

• Free Recall:

  • Requires recalling information without specific order.

• Cued Recall:

  • Recall one item from a list of paired items.

Implicit vs. Explicit Memory Tasks

• Explicit Memory:

  • Conscious recollection of specific information.

• Implicit Memory:

  • Unconscious recollection of information.

Models of Memory

• Atkinson-Shiffrin Model:

• Levels-of-Processing Model:

• Integrative Model of Working Memory:

• Connectionist Perspective:

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

• Developed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in 1968.

• Three memory stores:

  • Sensory Store:

    • Initial capture of incoming information.

    • Very brief retention (milliseconds).

  • Short-term Memory (STM):

    • Duration: Seconds to minutes (around 30 seconds).

    • Capacity: Typically 7 items (+/- 2).

  • Long-term Memory (LTM):

    • Extensive retention of information over long periods.

    • Permastore:

      • Long-term storage of knowledge (e.g., foreign language).

Levels-of-Processing Model

Proposed by Craik & Lockhart (1972, 2008).

Suggests that memory varies continuously based on encoding depth.

• Physical Level:

  • Identifying physical properties (e.g., is the word in capital letters?).

• Phonological Level:

  • Sound-related processing (e.g., does it rhyme?).

• Semantic Level:

  • Meaning-related processing (e.g., does it describe you?).

  • Self-reference effect enhances recall.

The Integrative Model: Working Memory

• Declarative Memory:

  • Semantic Memory:

    • Facts and general knowledge.

  • Episodic Memory:

    • Memory of specific events.

• Procedural Memory:

  • Memory for skills (motor, perceptual).

• Nondeclarative Memory:

  • Includes priming and conditioning effects.

Exceptional Memory: Mnemonists

• Individuals with extraordinary memory capacities.

Outstanding Memory

• Case study of S.: Synesthesia

  • Experience of sensations across different modalities (e.g., sounds perceived as colors or tastes).

Deficient Memory

• Amnesia:

  • Severe loss of explicit memory.

  • Types:

    • Retrograde: Loss of memory before a trauma.

    • Anterograde: Inability to form new memories after trauma.

    • Infantile: Inability to recall early life memories.

  • Alzheimer’s Disease:

  • A form of dementia characterized by

    • Loss of intellectual function and impaired daily life.

    • Progressive memory loss linked to brain atrophy (especially in the hippocampus and frontal/temporal regions).

How Memory is Stored

Long-term storage involves multiple systems.

• Explicit Memory: Detailed recall of facts and events.

• Procedural Knowledge: Skills acquired through practice.

• Emotional Events: Memory influenced by emotional context.

• Cerebellum: Involved in classical conditioning and cognitive tasks.