Motivation Emotion, Stress and Positive Psychology Test

I. Motivation Theories and Concepts

1. Drive-Reduction Theory - Motivation arises from biological needs that create an internal drive (e.g., eating to reduce hunger).

2. Incentive Theory - External rewards (money, praise) motivate behavior.

3. Arousal Theory - People seek optimal levels of arousal; explains thrill-seeking behaviors.

4. Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow) - People prioritize physiological needs before higher-level goals like self-actualization.

5. Homeostasis - The body's tendency to maintain balance (e.g., maintaining body temperature, hunger regulation).

6. Approach-Approach Conflict - Choosing between two desirable options (e.g., picking between two fun activities).

7. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict - Choosing between two undesirable options.

8. Approach-Avoidance Conflict - A decision with both positive and negative aspects.

II. Emotion Theories and Expression

1. James-Lange Theory - Emotions result from physiological reactions (e.g., "I feel sad because I am crying").

2. Cannon-Bard Theory - Emotions and physiological reactions occur simultaneously.

3. Schachter-Singer (Two-Factor) Theory - Emotions depend on physiological arousal and cognitive labeling.

4. Facial-Feedback Hypothesis - Facial expressions can influence emotional experiences.

5. Ekman’s Universal Facial Expressions - Six emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust) are universally recognized.

6. Display Rules - Cultural norms governing emotional expression.

7. Cognitive Appraisal - Personal interpretation of a situation influences emotional response.

III. Stress and Coping Mechanisms

1. General Adaptation Syndrome (Selye) - The three-stage response to stress:

   • Alarm - Initial reaction, fight-or-flight response.

   • Resistance - Prolonged coping efforts.

   • Exhaustion - Resources depleted, increased risk of illness.

2. Eustress vs. Distress - Positive stress (eustress) can enhance performance, whereas negative stress (distress) can be harmful.

3. Tend-and-Befriend Response - Stress response in which individuals seek social support.

4. Coping Strategies:

   • Problem-focused coping - Addressing the cause of stress directly.

   • Emotion-focused coping - Managing emotional reactions.

   • Avoidance coping - Ignoring the stressor.

IV. Positive Psychology and Well-Being

1. Gratitude and Happiness - Recognizing positive moments enhances well-being.

2. Broaden-and-Build Theory - Positive emotions expand thinking and increase personal resources.

3. Hedonic Adaptation - Tendency to return to a stable level of happiness despite major life changes.

4. Flow State - A deep focus and enjoyment in an activity, often leading to peak performance.

5. Resilience and Post-Traumatic Growth - Some individuals experience growth after trauma due to cultural or psychological factors.

V. Application and Ethics in Research

1. Operational Definitions - Clear definitions of variables (e.g., defining "thrill-seeking" by the number of skydiving experiences).

2. Experimental Research Design - Includes independent/dependent variables and random assignment.

3. Correlation vs. Causation - Correlational studies do not establish cause-and-effect relationships.

4. Ethical Guidelines - Informed consent, debriefing, protection from harm are key research ethics.

Motivation – A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior toward a goal.

Instinct – A complex, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species.

Physiological Need – A basic bodily requirement, such as food, water, and sleep.

Incentive – A positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.

Yerkes-Dodson Law – The principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases.

Affiliation Need – The deep-seated human desire to form and maintain strong, stable relationships.

Self-Determination Theory – A theory suggesting that people are motivated to grow and change by three innate psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Intrinsic Motivation – A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

Extrinsic Motivation – A desire to perform a behavior to receive external rewards or avoid punishment.

Ostracism – Deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups.

Achievement Motivation – A desire for significant accomplishment, mastering skills, or attaining a high standard.

Grit – Passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals.

Glucose – The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides a major source of energy for body tissues.

Set Point – The weight range in which your body is programmed to function optimally; when weight falls below this, hunger increases and metabolism slows.

Basal Metabolic Rate – The body’s resting rate of energy expenditure.

Obesity – A condition of being significantly overweight, often defined by a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or higher.

Emotion – A response of the whole organism, involving physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience.

Polygraph – A machine, commonly used in lie detection, that measures physiological responses such as heart rate and perspiration.

Facial Feedback Effect – The tendency of facial expressions to influence emotions (e.g., smiling can make you feel happier).

Behavior Feedback Effect – The tendency of behavior to influence our own and others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions.

Health Psychology – A subfield of psychology that provides psychological contributions to behavioral medicine.

Psychoneuroimmunology – The study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and overall health.

Stress – The process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.

Approach and Avoidance Motives – The idea that people are motivated to approach desirable outcomes and avoid undesirable ones.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) – Selye’s concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

Tend-and-Befriend Response – Under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others and seek support from them.

Coronary Heart Disease – The clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; leading cause of death in many developed countries.

Type A – Competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone personality type.

Type B – Easygoing, relaxed personality type.

Catharsis – Emotional release; the idea that "releasing" aggressive energy relieves aggressive urges.

Coping – Alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods.

Problem-Focused Coping – Attempting to reduce stress by directly changing the stressor or how we interact with it.

Emotion-Focused Coping – Attempting to reduce stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs instead.

Personal Control – Our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless.

Learned Helplessness – The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

External Locus of Control – The perception that outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.

Internal Locus of Control – The perception that you control your own destiny.

Self-Control – The ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards.

Positive Psychology – The study of human flourishing, with the goal of discovering and promoting strengths that help individuals and communities thrive.

Subjective Well-Being – Self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life.

Feel-Good, Do-Good Phenomenon – People’s tendency to be more helpful when they are in a good mood.

Adaptation-Level Phenomenon – Our tendency to judge various stimuli in comparison with past experiences.

Relative Deprivation – The perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself.

Broaden-and-Build Theory – The idea that positive emotions expand our awareness and encourage novel, varied, and exploratory thoughts and actions.

Character Strengths and Virtues – Traits that contribute to a good life, including wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.

Resilience – The ability to cope with stress and adversity, bouncing back from difficult experiences.

Aerobic Exercise – Sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; may also reduce stress, depression, and anxiety.

Mindfulness Meditation – A reflective practice in which people attend to current experiences in a nonjudgmental and accepting manner.

Gratitude – The appreciation of what is valuable and meaningful in one’s life, often linked to increased happiness and well-being.