Qualitative Research Process

INTRODUCTION

  • Historical Context (Pre-1980s):

    • Historically, qualitative researchers often labeled their own work as ‘nonscientific.’

    • This self-description defined a ‘negative niche’ for humanistic reflections on communication that fell outside the rigid boundaries of the social sciences (Farrell, 1987).

    • Mainstream science was critiqued for being overly descriptive and failing to facilitate social change or practical improvement.

  • Modern Developments:

    1. Enhanced Dialogue: There is now an ongoing exchange between qualitative and quantitative researchers, as well as between critical (transformative) and administrative (efficient/descriptive) researchers.

    2. Standardization: The field has transitioned from informal techniques to established procedures documented in dedicated journals, handbooks, and textbooks.

  • Scope of the Study:

    • This chapter focuses on systematic empirical research within media and communication studies.

    • It draws upon multidisciplinary foundations: anthropology (ethnography), sociology (social interactions), and the humanities (interpretation of texts).

BASIC CONCEPTS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

  • The Institutionalization of the Field:

    • Foundational works include Denzin and Lincoln (2005) and Miles and Huberman (1994), which provide blueprints for rigorous data management.

    • Specialized media studies texts by Jensen and Jankowski (1991) and Lindlof and Taylor (2011) bridge the gap between general social science and communication specificity.

  • Core Characteristics:

    1. Focus on Meaning:

    • Qualitative research prioritizes how humans interpret their experiences, particularly through communication technologies (Scannell, 1988).

    • Double Hermeneutics: Researchers perform a ‘double interpretation’—they interpret the interpretations of the subjects being studied.

    1. Naturalistic Contexts:

    • Investigations occur in ‘the field’ rather than in a laboratory. The goal is to capture the ‘native’s perspective’ (Malinowski, 1922) within their actual social environment.

    1. Researchers as Interpretive Subjects:

    • In quantitative research, data collection and analysis are often separate, sequential phases. In qualitative research, these processes are iterative and continuous; the researcher is the primary ‘instrument’ of data collection and interpretation.

EMIC AND ETIC ANALYSIS

  • Definitions:

    • Emic (Insider): Analyzing a culture or phenomenon using categories and concepts meaningful to the participants themselves.

    • Etic (Outsider): Applying external, often theoretical or cross-cultural, categories to explain observed behaviors.

  • The Relationship:

    • Pike (1967) notes that the etic framework often serves as the initial entry point, while emic insights emerge through immersion.

    • Findings often represent a ‘negotiated narrative’ rather than an absolute truth (Clifford and Marcus, 1986).

DESIGNING QUALITATIVE STUDIES

  • The Three Pillars of Design (Gorden, 1969):

    1. Strategy: The overarching plan, such as choosing between an ethnographic study, a case study, or a cross-sectional interview design.

    2. Tactics: Precise planning of social interactions, such as determining how to build rapport with subjects or selecting specific sites for observation.

    3. Techniques: The granular tools used, such as field note templates, recording devices, or linguistic protocols for interviewers.

  • Sampling in Qualitative Research:

    • Unlike quantitative sampling which seeks statistical representativeness (N), qualitative sampling seeks conceptual representativeness.

    • Sampling revolves around units of analysis like specific events, time periods, settings, or particular social roles.

SAMPLING PROCEDURES

  • Techniques for Selection:

    1. Maximum Variation Sampling: Purposefully seeking out cases that are as different as possible to identify common patterns across diverse settings.

    2. Theoretical Sampling: Selecting new subjects based on the emerging theory during the study. If a concept is unclear, the researcher seeks cases that test that specific concept.

    3. Convenience Sampling: Using readily available sources, though researchers must justify why these sources provide valid insights for the research question.

  • Snowball Sampling: Asking current informants to recommend others, which is effective for reaching ‘hidden’ populations.

  • Case Studies: Specialized research focused on a single entity (e.g., a specific newsroom or a fan community) to understand the complex interconnections within that system (Yin, 2003).

INTERVIEWING

  • Respondent Interviews: Participants serve as representatives of a specific social or demographic ‘type’ (e.g., investigating how rural women use social media).

  • Naturalistic Group Interviews: Observations of group discussions occurring spontaneously in their daily life.

  • Constituted Group Interviews (Focus Groups): Moderated discussions where the group is assembled by the researcher. This format leverages the interaction between participants to generate data that individual interviews might miss.

OBSERVATION

  • Thick Description (Geertz, 1973): A method of documentation that describes not just the behavior, but its context and intention, allowing an outsider to understand the social meaning.

  • The Participant-Observer Continuum:

    • Researchers may range from ‘complete participant’ (undercover) to ‘complete observer’ (unobtrusive/non-interacting).

  • Field Note Categorization (Burgess, 1982):

    • Substantive: Descriptions of the events, settings, and people.

    • Logistical: Practicalities (travel, timing, equipment).

    • Reflexive: The researcher’s personal feelings, biases, and changing perspectives.

DATA PRODUCTION AND ANALYSIS

  • Unobtrusive Measures: The study of ‘traces’ or artifacts (like social media archives or historical documents) that do not require active interaction with subjects.

  • Thematic Analysis and Grounded Theory:

    • Qualitative analysis involves Coding: assigning labels to data segments to organize and synthesize them.

    • Open Coding: Identifying initial themes.

    • Axial Coding: Relating themes to each other.

    • Selective Coding: Developing a core category that integrates all other categories into a theory.

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

  • Focuses on the ‘action’ of language. It investigates how reality is constructed through talk and text.

  • Key analytical elements include:

    • Pronouns: (e.g., ‘We’ vs. ‘They’ to establish identity and boundaries).

    • Metaphors: How subjects use figurative language to describe abstract concepts.

    • Turn-taking: Analyzing the power dynamics within a conversation.

COMPUTER-SUPPORTED RESEARCH

  • CAQDAS (Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software):

    • Since the 1990s, software like NVivo or ATLAS.ti has been used to manage large datasets and visualize relationships between codes.

  • Networked Media: Provides new avenues for data collection (online ethnography) and collaborative analysis across different geographical locations.