Period 3 Study Guide

The Enlightenment (1715-c.1790)

The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement of the 18th century. It emphasized:

• The scientific method

• criticizing organized religion (esp. the Catholic Church)

• criticizing absolutism

• natural laws that could applied to politics, economics, and society.

• Ideas encouraged the replacement of Christian values which were the foundations of Europe for more than a millennium

  • reason > revelation

• Revolutions encouraged the consolidation of national states as the principal form of government

  • pushed nationalist ideas that inspired people to work toward the foundation of states that would advance the interest of the national community

The Enlightenment continued the secular trends started by the Renaissance and that continued through the Scientific Revolution.

Philosophers

Role of the Enlightenment in political revolutions:

• John Locke—natural rights; popular sovereignty

• Voltaire—the role of the individual and religious freedom; deist

• Rousseau—direct democracy; the social contract

• Montesquieu—separation of powers in government; looked for natural laws in government

• Diderot—assembled knowledge into his Encyclopedie

• Jefferson, Adams, and Madison—Bringing together Locke and Montesquieu’s ideas of liberty, freedom, and a balanced government (c. 1776-1789)

7 Years’ War (1756-1763)

Origins 1754

• The immediate cause of the war was a territorial dispute between Great Britain and France in North America

• Both sides tried to entice Native Americans to their side as allies.

War Spreads to Europe (1756- 1763)

• The war renewed old European rivalries and inspired new alliances.

  • Great Britain, Prussia, and Portugal vs. France, Russia, Austria, and Spain

• Each side brought advantages to the table

  • Great Britain—finances to subsidize its allies; powerful navy; since the c.1750’s London became the new financial center of Europe

  • France—large economy and large army

  • Russia—large army

  • Prussia—small, highly trained army; Frederick the Great was a military genius

• Battlefield victories in Europe had consequences globally

Global War

• Using its superior naval forces, the British attacked Spanish and French colonies in North America, South America, the Caribbean, and in Asia

• Indigenous people in the Americas and Asia were bribed, persuaded, inspired, or forced to side with the British, French, or their allies.

• Whether Native Americans in the Americas, Hindus and Muslims in India, or indigenous Filipinos, these cultural groups were essential to the war effort.

• Example of European and non European alliances was in India.

  • Great Britain’s East India Company, under Robert Clive, defeated a vastly superior Mughal army at the Battle of Plessey in 1757 with the help of the Marathas, an independent Hindu kingdom in central India.

Outcome: Treaty of Paris 1763

• Great Britain dominated eastern North America including Florida; Spain controlled the western half; France lost Canada and gave Louisiana to Florida, but regained Martinique at the peace negotiations.

• India

  • French and Dutch pushed out of South Asia

  • Mughal domains pushed back to Delhi

  • Company forces and their Indian allies control central India

• British now had undisputed naval and financial power in Europe

  • They did have a large debt that required servicing through heavy taxes and fees

• Spanish and French colonial power is reduced

• Era of the modern British Empire begins

The American Revolution (1776-1783)

• The seeds for revolution in the 13 British North American colonies began after the Seven Years’ War

• The causes of the Revolution were economic and political

• Increase in taxes and regulation from Britain

  • Townshend Act—taxed many imports from Britain

  • Stamp Act—taxed all paper products in the colonies

  • Tea Act—gave government preference to the British East India

    • Company’s tea over colonial objections

• North American colonists did not have representation in Parliament even though they were British subjects

• Conflict began in 1775

The French Revolution (1789-1799)

Louis XVI (1774-1791)

• Felt inexperienced and was not a decisive ruler

Causes

• Serious financial crisis because of debts as a result of two major wars

  • Two wars vs. Great Britain:

    • Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)

    • American Revolution (1776-1783)

• Enlightenment ideas as a result of the success of the American Revolution was influencing the growing bourgeoisie

• Bad harvests in the late 1780’s led to flour wars, or riots, over the inflated price of food.

• King Louis XVI needed to raise taxes on the nobility

• In 1789, the nobility forced him to call the Estates General, an ancient assembly that last met in 1614

  • 1st Estate—clergy (represented 100K+)

  • 2nd Estate—nobility (represented 350K)

  • 3rd Estate—(represented 24 Million)

    • Peasants

    • Bourgeoisie

National Assembly, 1789

• Because the first two estates can nullify any vote of the 3rd estate, the 3rd demanded greater power.

• The king and the 1st and 2nd estate balked.

• The 3rd Estate, broke away from the Estates General, and proclaimed a national assembly (legislature) of the people.

• On June 20, 1789, the members of the 3rd Estate swore an oath to not disband the assembly until a constitution for France was agreed upon

The “Tennis Court Oath”: Members of the Third Estate, along with some sympathetic clergy and radical nobles, swear not to disband until France had a constitution

Storming of the Bastille prison/fortress, July 14,1789: Symbol of French absolutism destroyed by Paris mob. This event marks the beginning of the French Revolution.

Women’s march on Versailles: The women of Paris force the King and his family to move to Paris, 1789

Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité

The National Assembly

• Proclaimed liberty, equality, and fraternity as its goals

• Created the Declaration of the Rights of Man

  • (modeled after Jefferson’s Dec. of Independence)

• Abolished the 1st estate

• Nationalized church property

• Abolished feudalism and the special rights of the nobility

• Created a constitutional monarchy; the king serves the people

The Convention

• The French Revolution radicalizes, 1792

• France declared war against Prussia and Austria; then against Britain and Spain (aka the “Coalition”)

• France was now at war with most of Europe

• Paranoia that the king was going to overthrow the National Assembly with the help of the Coalition.

• The Convention is formed to save the Revolution

  • Called for the levée en masse—a citizens’ army

• Flight to Varennes/Escape attempt of the king

  • On June 20, 1792, Louis, his wife Marie Antoinette, and the royal family attempted to escape France to the safety of Austrian territory and loyal troops on the border.

  • The king was recognized by his face on a postage stamp and was forced to return to Paris.

• The result of the escape was that the Convention lost its trust in the king or in the chances of a constitutional monarchy.

Committee of Public Safety: Radical Phase

• Committee of Public Safety—Peak of radicalism, 1793-1794

• Louis XVI was convicted of treason and executed in January 1793. Marie Antoinette was executed several months later.

• Radical Jacobin party under Maximilien Robespierre believed French society needed to be completely remade and took control of the Convention

  • Abolished calendar and declares “Year 1 of the Revolution”

  • Applied the metric system to distances, weight, and measurements (unit of 10)

  • Abolished Christianity; creates a cult of reason

• Instituted “the Terror” to root out France’s internal enemies (anti Revolutionaries, monarchists, former nobles) 40,000+ executed; need only to be formally accused.

• “Reign of Terror”: September 1793 to July 1794

• By 1794, Robespierre and his allies were at the peak of their power.

• Robespierre had many of their rivals executed and they planned additional repressions on anyone who they suspected of being a counterrevolutionary.

• In July, 1794, members of The Convention had the courage to denounce Robespierre and his allies.

• Robespierre and many of the Jacobins were executed for their excesses

• A new and more moderate government formed: The Directory 1795

Women

• Women had no rights in Pre Revolutionary France.

• Women were considered “passive” citizens during the ancien regime

• After the Revolution, women’s roles increased

  • Women marched on Versailles to force the king and his family back to Paris.

  • Women formed the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women

    • Demanded a low price for bread

    • Agitated for a constitution

    • Fought against religious women and former servants of aristocrats.

• Marie Olympe de Gouges: Wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Women

  • Advocated human rights, gender equality, and the abolition of slavery

  • Opposed the execution of Louis XVI

  • Was a political moderate, and was eventually executed with other Girondists in 1793.

• Despite the radical agenda of the Jacobins, gender equality was not popular with Robespierre and others.

  • The Committee of Public Safety closed the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women

  • Some feminists such as Gouges were executed on fake charges

• During the revolution, women had increased rights but lost them during the directory and napoleon's rule

The Directory

After the fall of the Robespierre, a new moderate government was formed: The Directory

• Led by five directors

• It continued the war against the Coalition with success

• It was infamous for its corruption

• Employed Napoleon Bonaparte to defend it against an uprising of wealthy Parisians.

Napoleon Bonaparte

• Born in Corsica; Italian descent

• Brilliant artillery officer

• Devoted to the Revolution and was crucial to French victories against the Coalition, 1797 (Toulon)

• Invaded Egypt, 1798

• Overthrew the Directory and declared himself Consul (dictator) and later emperor, 1804

Napoleonic France

• Created a new civil law code, code civil or, the Napoleonic Code (still used in Louisiana)

  • French civil law became the model for the civil codes of Quebec Province, Canada, the Netherlands, Spain, some Latin American republics, and the state of Louisiana

• Granted religious freedom to Protestants and Jews

• Was a moderate and not a radical

  • limited free speech and routinely censored newspapers and other publications.

  • use of propaganda to manipulate public opinion

  • he ignored elective bodies

• Allowed the Catholic Church to have a place in French

• Created a merit based society that rewarded talent and not social class

• Supported traditional patriarchy

Napoleon’s military skill

• Napoleon was a brilliant military planner and tactician

  • Able to predict events on a battlefield before they happened

  • Was able to “get in the mind” of his enemy, and make his plans accordingly

• Napoleon reorganized the Revolutionary Armies into the “systéme du corps,” or more independent units that could fight while outnumbered long enough for the main army to arrive

• Created an “Imperial Guard” of elite troops that could be used in an emergency in case his army was about to be defeated

• Trusted his lower generals to make their own decisions on the battlefield as long as they achieved their goal

  • Encouraged an esprit de corps, or fighting spirit, in his troops

  • Would often hold large military parades to raise the morale of his troops

• His greatest victories were at the Battle of Austerlitz (1805) against

  the Austrians and the Battle of Jena (1807) against the Prussians

Napoleonic Empire

• Napoleon wished to dominate the European continent

• Quickly defeated Prussia, Austria, Italian states, and Spain

• Holy Roman Empire disbanded; remade into the Austrian Empire

• Could never defeat Britain

  • Royal Navy was too strong

• Invasion of Russia— disaster

• Great Britain leads the anti Napoleon coalition

• It takes five wars and nearly 15 years to defeat Napoleon and force him into exile

• He came back and for 100 days; he ruled France again before a British army defeated him at Waterloo in Belgium

• Died on St. Helena island in the middle of the South Atlantic in 1821.

French Government Timeline

• Louis 16—c.1794

• 1st Republic—c.1792

• Napoleon—c.1800

• Louis 18—c.1815

• Charles 10—c. 1820

• Louis Phillipe— c.1830

• 2nd Republic—1848

• Napoleon III—1852

• 3rd Republic—1871

Beginning of Nationalism

Congress of Vienna, 1815

• Great Britain, Spain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria aimed to stabilize Europe after Napoleon’s defeat

• Conservative agenda:

  • Return to ancien regime borders and policies

• Balance of power

• Suppress nationalism in Central Europe

Modern Political ideologies

LIBERALISM

• Change should be welcomed and encouraged

• Supported

  • Universal male suffrage

  • Taxes on profits

  • Individual freedom

  • Women’s’ rights

  • John Stuart Mill

CONSERVATISM

• Societal change should occur slowly

• Society has a compact, or agreement, between its ancestors, the present generation, and the future.

  • Edmund Burke

• American Revolution— acceptable

• French Revolution— unacceptable

Abolition of slavery and women’s rights

William Wilberforce

• Used religion and morality to influence British Parliament

• Abolition of the slave trade (UK, 1807)

• Abolition of slavery

  • UK 1833 (compensated emancipation)

• Women’s rights and the Abolition movement were strongly linked

  • Used abolitionist arguments to push for the suffrage

• Mary Wollstonecraft

  • Wollstonecraft argued that women possessed all rights that Locke had granted to men.

  • “A Vindication of the Rights of Woman”

Nationalism in Europe

Nationalism is NOT an enlightenment idea

Napoleonic Wars increased feelings of nationalism in many countries, especially in Germany

• Concept of the volk, or German people

The more strongly a country felt about itself, the more (negative) comparisons it drew with other minorities and nationalities.

National communities

• France: inspired patriotism and encourage citizens to rally to the defense of the revolution when for foreign armies threatened it.

  • use of “Marseillaise” inspired pride, opposition to Napoleon and his imperial designs also inspired national feeling in Britain.

• Zionism, a political movement that holds that the Jewish people constitute a nation and have the right to their own national home-land,

  • Zionism in tur provoked a resentful nationalism among Palestinian Arabs displaced by Jewish settlers,

Nationalist rebellions

• 1821: Greek people sought independence from the Ottoman.

• The uprisings of 1848 brought down the French monarchy and seriously threatened the Austrian empire, where subject peoples clamored for constitutions and independence.

• The unification of Italy and Germany made it clear that when coupled with strong political, diplomatic, and military leadership, nationalism had enormous potential to mobilize people who felt a sense of national kinship.

Antisemitism in Europe

• Antisemitism continued after the Enlightenment in Europe

  • Ex: Dreyfus Affair, French, Jewish captain that was convicted of selling secrets to Germany

• Russia (pogroms— violent semi official attacks by mobs on Jews)

• By 1895, Theodore Herzl believed that only through the creation of a Judenstaat, or Jewish state, would the Jewish people escape the grip of anti semitism.

• The movement Herzl began would result in the creation of Israel in 1948.

“Young Italy”

• In early 1800s, Italy was dominated by Austria, the Papal States, and Spain

• Giuseppe Mazzini’s movement encouraged Italians to fight off the foreign dominance

  • The nation’s people=family

  • The nation=home

• By 1870, Italy was united as one country under the monarchy of Vittore Emmanuele, King of Italy

France: Revolution and the Second Empire

Prince to President to Napoleon III

• In 1852, Napoleon seized power, overthrew the Second Republic, and proclaimed himself Emperor Napoleon III

• Promised to bring back to France the glory and stability of the First Empire

• He first ruled as a constitutionally elected president, promised the working classes jobs, and increased wages

Accomplishments

• The French economy expanded rapidly, particularly in railroads and banking.

• Hired architect and engineer Hussmann to rebuild Paris.

• France fought, and won wars: vs. the Russian and Austrian Empire

Failure

• Tried to create an empire in Mexico in 1864

  • 5 de Mayo celebrates Mexico's victory against France

• Could not maintain control over French politics

• Involved France in a war with Prussia. Franco—Prussian War

  • Was defeated at the Battle of Sedan and surrendered personality to the Prussians (1870)

Germany

• The Holy Roman Empire was dissolved by Germany Napoleon in 1807

  • Replaced by the Austrian (Hungarian) Empire—1807-1918

• German states were now dominated by Prussia

  • In c. 1860, Otto von Bismarck was appointed prime minister by King Wilhelm I

  • Bismarck’s agenda was to unite the German states under Prussian leadership into one nation

  • This unification would be accomplished by blut und isen (blood and iron), and not by negotiation and diplomacy

• 1864-1870

  • In six years, Bismarck manipulated first Denmark, then Austria, and finally France into short, quick wars that achieved this aim.

  • After defeating the French, King Wilhelm I is crowned Emperor Wilhelm of Germany (1871).

    • The Second Reich is proclaimed

• Bismarck’s principles

  • Though Bismarck was ruthless in uniting Germany, once his goals were met, he worked to keep the peace in Europe.

  • He had no desire to dominate the continent

    • realpolitik—practical politics; avoid needlessly angering your rivals

    • Germany would not use its military power for further expansion

Revolutions and Nationalism in the Americas (c.1800-1820)

Haiti/Sainte Domingue

• From 1730’s, the French began growing sugar cane on Sainte Domingue (Haiti).

• By the 1750’s, it became the main supplier of the world’s sugar.

• Sugar exports from the Caribbean provide jobs for 1,000,000 people in France.

• Growing this sugar was a labor force of 500,000 West African slaves.

  • Nearly 50% of all Africans who arrived on the island died from over work, yellow fever, and illness

  • Many were tortured for running away, conspiring to revolt, or breaking equipment.

• Caste system

  • White colonists created a strict race based social system on the island by the 1780’s

    • Les Blancs—plantation owners, their families, small shop keepers

    • Gen de couleur libre—free blacks; included mulattoes and former slaves who bought their freedom or were freed by their masters

    • Slaves—outnumbered the above groups 10:1; two thirds were of African descent

• 1791 Rebellion

  • In 1791, during a vodou ceremony in the middle of a tropical storm, maroons in the hills outside of the plantations invaded the sugar growing regions and burned plantations.

  • A former slave and free black named Toussaint de

    L’Ouverture (“the Opening”), who owned slaves himself at one time, led the rebellion in the late 1790’s, and attempted to unify all Haitians in the creation of a new republic.

  • L’Ouverture was a natural born leader and excellent horseman.

• In 1801, Napoleon sent a large army to invade Haiti, arrest L’Ouverture, and restore slavery.

  • The rebel slave army was difficult to defeat

  • Yellow fever and other tropical disease kill thousands of French troops, including their commander, General Leclerc

• L’Ouverture was arrested and died in a French prison, but the Haitians resisted the French army, and Napoleon recalled his forces.

• Haiti had achieved independence as the first majority black republic.

South America

• The Spanish Flota system provided Spain with the gold, silver, and precious stones needed to prop up a corrupt Spanish monarchy.

  • Because of mercantilism, Spanish colonists in the Americas were unable to trade with other countries

• Inspired by the Enlightenment, the American and French Revolutions, and the early years of Napoleon’s empire, creoles in the Spanish Americas questioned the social, economic, and political system that made them second class citizens.

• Beginning in the 1810’s Bolívar in Gran Colombia, Hidalgo and Morales in Mexico, and San Martín in Rio de la Plata rebelled against Spanish rule.

• By 1820, Spain, weakened by Napoleon’s invasion and decades of poor leadership, gave up on reconquering the Americas.

• Bolívar had hoped to unite South America into one nation like the U.S. in North America, but geography, civil war, caudillos, and rivals made it impossible.

Brazil

• Napoleon’s 1807 invasion of Spain in Portugal created a crisis for the Portuguese monarchy.

• Prince Joao, and the rest of the House of Braganza, the royal family of Portugal, fled to their largest colony, Brazil.

• From 1808-1820, Brazil benefitted from being the temporary seat of government for the Portuguese Empire.

• When he was made King of Portugal in 1821, Joao was required to return to Europe.

• Joao appointed his son, Pedro as ruler of Brazil in his place, and returned to Portugal.

  • In 1822, Pedro led a rebellion in Brazil, and declared the country independent and an empire, becoming Emperor Pedro I of Brazil.

  • Brazil would remain an empire until 1889.

Romanticism

Industrial Revolution

• Ingredients for industrialization

  • Access to coal

    • Iron and steel was cheaper and high quality

    • nineteenth century was an age of steel

  • Access to raw materials

    • called “ecological relief”; the availability of products from colonial regions provided raw materials which otherwise could not be found in Europe

  • Dense populations

  • Navigable rivers and/or canals (to transport coal and raw materials and later the finished goods)

  • Active commercial and financial systems (to lend money to capitalists to invest in factories and technologies)

The First Industries

• The first work to be affected by the Industrial Revolution was the cotton thread and textile making industry

  • John Kay (1730) flying shuttle; allowed the production of large pieces by a single weaver

  • James Hargreaves (1764) invented a machine that could spin cotton or wool fibers into thread

  • Richard Arkwright (1769) invented a thread spinning machine that was powered by a water wheel

  • Edmund Cartwright (1787) invented a water powered loom, or fabric making machine

Mill Girls

• The majority of workers in the textile mills of the 1800s were young women.

• They worked 12-13 hours a day

• Wages were “high” at first; $3-5 a week

• Were steadily reduced after that

Dangers

• Because of the dark, dusty, and noisy conditions in the factory, millwork was dangerous

• Fast moving parts could catch hair, clothing, or limbs

• The noise could cause permanent hearing loss

• Cotton fibers in the air were bad for the lungs and caused a disease called “brown lung.”

Social classes

• Middle class was the principal beneficiary of industrialization; began to influence political affairs

• factory owners sought to persuade workers to adopt middle-class norms of respectability and morality.

Women

• married women were unable to work unless they left their homes and children in someone else's care. society neither expected nor wanted women to engage in labor

• Working-class women were expected to work at least until marriage

• most women in the cities went into domestic service in middle-class households,

• early manufacturers employed women in greater numbers than men.

• women (and also children were best suited to operate the new machines because their small hands and fingers

• Middle-class women

• stringent confinement to the domestic sphere and pressure to conform to new models of behavior revolving around their roles as mothers and wives. something unfeminine in independence."

Child Labor in the mills

• Though children had started at a young age to work with their family on farms, the industrial revolution provided the opportunity for children to work for pay outside the home.

• In Great Britain during the 1820’s, children aged nine or younger were to be found in some factories or even mines.

• Beginning in the 1840’s -1860’s, a series of Factory Acts passed by Parliament, steadily limited the age at which children could work, and the number of hours a day that were required of all workers in a textile mill.(1833 Factory Act)

  • Ten hour work day established

  • Children younger than nine were unable to work in factories

  • Children with a good school record between the ages of 10-14 could be employed

  • Children older than nine were not allowed to clean moving textile machinery (looms and spinning frames).

  • Guards placed on powered machinery

Population and society

• Populations rose sharply

• Medical advances: control disease and reduce mortality.

• Edward Jenner Created the vaccine

• Better diets and improved disease control

• Improved sanitation and creation of male condom

• Fertility and death rates dropped

Age of Steam

• The first steam engines were designed in the 1690’s and used throughout the early 1700’s to pump water out of coal mines.

• James Watt—Scottish engineer and inventor who improved on the early steam engines to create the first efficient steam engine in 1764 capable for use in many industries.

• Railways were first used in the 1700s to haul coal out of mines.

  • They used horses, mules, or human power to push or pull carts.

• Locomotives were cheaper than the amount of horses required to pull the loads and could be used in any weather

  • The inventor of the modern railway was George Stephenson

• New jobs made available by railroads

  • Construction of hundreds of miles of tracks, bridges, tunnels, and stations required workers

  • Engineers and mechanics were required to run the railroads

  • Clerks were needed to handle the paperwork required to keep track of the freight and passenger trains the railroads.

Trade unions

• both employers and governments considered trade unions illegal associations whose purpose was to restrain trade.

• violence frequently broke out, when workers went on strike

  • ex: Luddites went on a rampage and destroyed textile machines that they blamed for their low wages and unemployment.

• trade unions sought to make employers more responsive to their employees needs and interests.

International division of labor

• the world's peoples provided raw materials while others processed and consumed them, increased the volume of world trade and led to increased transportation on both sea and land.

Capitalism

• 1913 Henry Ford: the assembly line to automobile production.

• Corporations controlled most business

The three major thinkers (physiocrats) were:

• Thomas Malthus

• Adam Smith

• David Ricardo

Thomas Malthus

• Focused on demographics (population change and growth).

• Predicted a time in which the population of the world would surpass the ability to produce enough food.

• The population would collapse in a devastating famine.

Adam Smith — Economics and Father of Capitalism

• Smith wrote the book The Wealth of Nations (1776) in which he argued that:

  • Competition was good for society

  • An “invisible hand” helped make self interest (greed?) a positive in society rather than a negative

• Free trade/free market (no import tariffs or government regulations) makes all nations better off

• Governments should not impose regulations on economic activities (laissez faire/leave alone)

David Ricardo: Supply and Demand and Price

• Ricardo predicted a time when the price of land would exceed the ability for common people to afford, creating inequalities in society.

• Iron Law of Wages:

  • The higher the wages, the larger the family.

  • The larger the family, the more workers in a society.

  • The more workers in society, the lower the wages.

• Came up with the “scarcity principle”:

  • As a product became scarce, its price increased.

  • In theory there was no limit to how high prices could be for certain products

• Was worried about this immorality of capitalism

Socialism

Socialists felt that the means of production needed to be owned by the people rather than wealthy individuals.

• Economic equality was more important than political equality

• Large-scale organization of working people = best means to bring about a just and equitable society.

Utopian communities (1830-1840)

• Early socialism focused on cooperative communities, Christian values, and were strictly volunteer social experiments.

By the 1880’s, socialism split between

• Those who favored a democratic and peaceful approach to Marxism (Democratic Socialist),

• Those who favored a violent approach Marxism (Socialist/Communist).

Communism — Marx and Engels

The benefits of industrialization were now obvious:

• The wealth generated by business and factory owners allowed for investments in the economy

• Increased social mobility

• The economic benefits of railway and steamship travel helped further develop the economy

• However, the growth of industries created economic and political inequalities among the new working class

  • Low wages

  • Long hours

  • Poor living conditions

  • Persistent poverty

• Capitalists believed in laissez faire or leave alone.

• Governments were unwilling to create laws that would

  • limit working hours,

  • implement unemployment insurance,

  • establish a minimum wage,

  • create old age pension

Marx and Marxism (1848)

• In 1848, a year of revolutions in Europe, Karl Marx, a German economist and Friedrich Engels, a German journalist, wrote The Communist Manifesto.

• The Manifesto was an action plan for socialists, and laid out Marx’s ideas on the history and future of socialism

According to Marx

• The world can be divided into two classes: the bourgeoisie and proletariat

  • Bourgeoisie—upper class. Owned the means of production.

  • Proletariat—working class. Owned nothing of their own.

• The history of the world is that of a constant struggle between these two classes

  • A violent class war was inevitable

• The proletariat would win and then own the means of production

• All class distinctions would be abolished; a classless society created

• Revolutionary socialists urged workers to seize control of the state, confiscate the means of production, and distribute wealth equitably throughout society.

• A utopian society would be created in which property was shared, national boundaries, war, and government eliminated, and a utopia would be established on earth.

Successful Communist Revolutions

• Russia (1917)

• China (1949)

• Cuba (1959)

Meiji Restoration (1867- 1910)

Bakumatsu: The end of bakufu and the Tokugawa Shogunates

• Japan was ruled by the Tokugawa shogunate from 1603-1867

• Tokugawa challenges

  • Crop failures

  • Economic downturn

  • Foreign intrusion

• The Japanese knew what happened to China during the Opium Wars.

  • Attempted to order military weapons and technology from the Dutch.

• In 1854, a U.S. fleet under Commodore Matthew Perry sailed into Tokyo Bay to force a treaty on Japan.

  • U.S. whalers who were shipwrecked on the coast of Japan were murdered because of their violation of sakoku.

• The Shogun signed a treaty with the U.S., revealing the military weakness of the bakufu.

  • Treaty benefitted foreign merchants and opened U.S. markets to the Japanese.

  • Banned opium

• By c. 1860, trade imbalance and silver out flow from Japan to the west weakened the Japanese economy.

“Rich country, strong army”

• Japanese nationalist form the Sonno Joi movement.

• Boshin War (1868-1869)

  • Civil war between the Shogun and those who wanted a restored emperor. Imperial forces won.

• New Emperor Meiji

  • Abolished the daimyo and samurai classes, c.1870

    • Samurai could choose between the army, navy, or retire

    • Samurai culture still survived –bushido

  • Created a constitutional government, 1889

    • Strong chief executive (prime minister)

    • Answered directly to the emperor

    • Less than 5% of the adult population could vote

Meiji Government

• The Meiji government hired foreigners for

  • Consultation on writing a constitution

  • Building a naval ship yard

  • Creating armaments factories

• College students were sent to Europe and the U.S. to learn industrial techniques.

  • first silk manufacturing

  • later iron and steel products, machines, and weapons

  • Factories were first owned by the government, c. 1870’s

  • Labor intensive despite machines; long hours and poor wages for women

  • Dangerous, underpaid work; labor unions and strikes are illegal

• Naval officers visited Britain to learn battle tactics and new ship building techniques.

Japan’s industrialization

Foundations for their Industrial Revolution

• dramatic slowing of population growth

• the easing of an impending ecological crisis

• a flourishing, highly commercialized economy.

  • During period 2, the Tokugawa shoguns used silver-generated profits to defeat hundreds of rival feudal lords and unify the country.

• Problems:

  • Japan lacked many of the natural resources needed to industrialize

  • Japan had only small amounts of coal and needed:

    • iron ore

    • tin

    • copper

    • rubber

    • oil

  • Because of a growing population, Japan became more dependent on importing food, especially rice, from Korea (China), and mainland China

  • Japanese officials realized they would have to acquire new territories to gain the resources necessary for the next stage of industrialization.

  • The Japanese run their economy through companies such as Mitsubishi, Kawasaki, and other large industrial firms who form groups called zaibatsu.

Japanese wars of conquest (1895-1905)

• First Sino Japanese War, 1895

  • In 1895, Japan went to war with China for control of Korea.

  • While Japan won the war using foreign built warships to beat the Qing navy at sea, Europeans powers limited Japanese gains.

• Russo Japanese War

  • In 1905, Japan was concerned at Russian expansion into China (Manchuria) and Korea.

  • Russia wanted to build a railroad into Manchuria

  • The Russian Navy had a naval base in Port Arthur, Korea.

  • After a surprise attack sank the Russian Pacific fleet at Port Arthur, Korea, the Japanese invaded Korea and defeated the Russians on land

  • A last minute attempt by Russians to win the war by sending their fleet from the Baltic to the Pacific ended in disaster for the Russians at the Battle of Tsushima.

  • Treaty of Portsmouth (1905) grants Japan access to Manchuria and China.

• In one generation, Japan went from a feudal society to a modern industrial state.

• Japan was able to defeat China (1895) and Russia (1905) in a modern war and establish itself as a “great power” equal to Europe and the U.S.

China in distress

• Corruption of Cixi and the Qing

  • Peasant rebellions

  • Corruption scandals

  • cheating/bribery on civil service exams

  • Lavish expenditures at the imperial palace

  • Poverty

Taiping Rebellion

• The Heavenly Kingdom/Society of God (1850-1869) rounded by Hong Xiguan:

  • Failed the civil service exam at least 3 times

  • had visions that he was the brother of Jesus Christ

  • Felt like his mission was to overthrow the Qing

  • began the Taiping Rebellion

  • Taiping Rebellion lasted 14 years and cost 60 million lives

• The Taiping’s wanted land reform, gender equality, and other radical changes

  • the Qing eventually crushed the revolt (Britain/France allies)

  • the rebellions furthered weakened the Qing

Qing Reforms: Not enough

• Self- strengthening Movement (1860s)

  • attempts to industrialize

  • failed to modernize military before first Sino Japanese war

  • "Chinese learning at base/western learning for use"

    • Confucianism and western world would coexist

  • opposed by Cixi

• Hundred Days Movement (1898)

  • aggressive attempt to reform esp. after Korea territory defeat

  • opposed by Cixi

  • arrest of the emperor

  • execution or exile of the reformers

• The Self-Strengthening Movement focused primarily on technological and military modernization, while the Hundred Days' Reform aimed for broader social, political, and institutional changes. 

• The Self-Strengthening Movement = preserve traditional Chinese values while adopting Western technology

• Hundred Days' Reform = more Western-style governance and education. 

Boxer Rebellion (1899 - 1900)

• Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists

  • anti foreigner / anti Christian movement

  • Cixi approved

  • followers believed to be invulnerable to bullets

  • multi national force (Chinese citizens) quickly crushed the rebellion

Societies at Crossroads

Four empires at a Crossroads: China, Russia, the Ottoman Empire, and Japan

• Weaknesses of failing empires:

  • military inferiority vs. western Europe

  • internal weaknesses

  • corruption

  • falling government revenue

  • Falling agricultural yields

(All doomed - Japan)

The Sublime Porte: The Ottoman Empire

• The Janissary corps was wiped in 1826 out by Mahmud II, who executed 6,000 of them

• Main reasons for Ottoman decline:

  • military weaknesses = loss of territory

    • VS. Russia

      • Crimean War 1854, Ottoman won

        (with Britain/France allies)

      • Russo Turkish War 1877, Russia won

    • VS. Austria

      • Siege of Vienna 1683, Austria won

      • Austria ultimately gained significant territory from the Ottomans. 

  • Internal rebellions

    • Greek independence c. 1820

    • Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, and Albania independent

    • Egypt became autonomous but under the Sultan

  • failure of janissaries to keep up with military advances

    • focused on internal politics and control of the Sultan

    • destabilizing force

Too little, too late

• Late 1800's: Ottoman territory had shrunk to Anatolic (Turkey), and the Middle East (Palestine, Syria, and Iraq,), and the Balkans.

• Capitulations — Europeans were given special rights and privileges to not have to follow Ottoman law and to be tried by courts in their own countries.

  • Nothing symbolized foreign influence more than the capitulations

• Reform Efforts:

  • Military — create a more European style army (Napoleon's corps system

  • Education — make education compulsory for citizens; establish technical schools and colleges

  • Legal — simplify and modernize legal code (law giver tradition)

Tanzimat: The Rose Garden Edict (1839-1870s)

• Reforms:

  • Gave religious minorities equal rights (Christians and Jews) , at least on paper

  • Industrialized the economy

  • Built the first railroads and telegraph systems

  • Abolished slavery

  • Reorganized the legal code

    • Implemented new legal codes based on European models (French Penal Code)

  • Weakened conservative Islamic groups

The Young Turks

• Young Turks, 1908 (inspired by Mazzini's Young Italy movement)

  • borrowed from the French Revolution's liberty, equality, fraternity

  • force sultans to rule "constitutionally"

  • ends sultan aristocracy

  • introduces political parties

  • nationalistic (pro Turkey /pro Turkish)

  • Angered religions and ethnic minorities (Christians and Jews/Armenians) by their pro Turkish policies and reforms

Russia

• Like the Ottomans, the Russians suffered humiliating military defeats:

  • Crimean War (1854) vs. Britain and France and the Ottomans

  • Crimea occupied by western powers

• Nicholas I (1825–1855)

  • Decembrist Revolt (1825)

    • Came to power after this — he crushed it brutally.

  • Promoted

    • autocracy

    • orthodoxy

    • nationalism

    • (conservative ideology).

  • Beliefs Manifested via

    • Strong censorship

    • Secret police (Third Section).

    • Suppressed liberal and nationalist movements

      • (e.g. Polish Revolt).

    • Expanded Russia’s bureaucracy and military.

  • Fought the Crimean War (1853–1856)

    • Failure

    • Lost prestige

    • Showed weakness

• Under Tsar Alexander II

  • serfs emancipated (1860s)

  • Tsar "Liberator" Alexander II was assassinated because he wasn’t radical / liberal enough

• Alexander III (1881–1894)

  • Father’s assassination (Alexander II)

    • Came to power after this

  • Rejected his father's reforms

    • returned to autocracy and repression

    • Strengthened Okhrana (secret police) and censorship.

    • Reversed liberal reforms of the Zemstvos

    • Crushed political opposition and increased power of the state bureaucracy.

  • Promoted Russification:

    • Suppressed non-Russian cultures/languages (Poles, Ukrainians, Jews).

    • Orthodox Christianity promoted as national religion.

    • Harsh policies triggered Jewish pogroms and emigration.

  • Supported industrialization and modernized infrastructure:

    • Oversaw expansion of railroads (e.g., Trans-Siberian Railway began).

    • Laid foundations for economic policies later continued under Witte

Reform in Russia

• Political reform:

  • zemstvos: elected district assemblies to make local and regional decisions

  • legal: law courts and law codes similar to European models

  • Tsarist autocracy is still supreme

• Count Sergei Witte

  • Witte system: economic reforms that encouraged foreign (French/Belgium) investment in railroads and factories.

  • Trans Siberian railway constructed (links Siberia - European Russia)

• Repression and Revolution

  • Witte system outlawed trade unions

    • working class discontent over:

      1. low wages

      2. long working hours

      3. insufficient housing

• Growing ethnic discontent in Russia:

  • Poles, Baltic states, Ukrainians, Georgians, Caucuses, Anti Jewish pogroms

• Revolutionary societies

  • People’s will (assassinated Alexander II)

  • Socialists

Imperialism

Foundations of Empire

Imperialism: the economic and for political domination of Asia, Africa, and the Americas by the Europe, USA, and Japan.

• economic motives: control of areas or regions considered vital to the home countries economy (rubber in Congo, oil in Middle East)

• political motives: even unprofitable colonies were important es naval bases, telegraph/wireless stations, or simply to keep another nation from taxing control of them

  • colonies were also useful means of distracting domestic populations from problems at home

  • Italy was the only

• cultural justification: white Europeans felt that they had a civilizing mission toward indigenous populations around the world.

  • This "white man's burden" was also a reason to acquire and maintain colonies.

    • religious missions

Tools of Empire

Transportation:

• Steamships allowed colonial powers to transport troops and supplies to Africa, Asia, and the Pacific.

• River gunboats allowed them to project their authority deep into the interior.

• Railroads allowed fust overland transportation of European troops and linked raw materials with ports back to the home country.

Military technologies:

• Rifles, machine guns, and rapid fire cannons allowed Europeans to overcome any weapons indigenous people may have had. (Maxim gun)

Medicine:

• Europeans hid previously been able to penetrate far into the jungles of the Americas, Africa, and Asia because of mosquito borne diseases such as malaria and yellow fever.

• Breakthroughs in medicines

  • Quinine, or "Jesuit Bark" c.1840

    • bark from the cinchona tree used by indigenous groups in South America to prevent malaria, was isolated into a liquid, quinine

• Mosquito as the vector of disease c. 1900

  • the US and Cuban doctors realized that mosquitos were the cause of yellow fever in Panama. By targeting stagnant pools of water, use of mosquito netting, and screens, explorers and travelers could reduce their exposure to the disease

Communications:

First telegraph, and then wireless (radio) communication allowed colonial officials to communicate with the metropole (imperial centers) to quickly deal with crisis.

New Canals:

• Suez Canals (1869): constructed by the French firm using Egyptian labor (fellahin); thousands of which died from malaria or overwork; taken over by the British in the c. 1880's

• Panama Canal (1874—1914): flawed plans, malaria /yellow fever cost the lives of over 20,000 Afro Caribbean and French laborers.

  • The US purchased the canal company (1904),

  • inspired Panamanian independence to avoid paying Colombia the cost of purchasing the land, and completed in 1914.

The British Raj: British Rule in India

• Ram Mohan Roy “Father of the Indian Renaissance” (1772-1833)

  • Indian social reformer

  • Advocated for modernization

    • reforms in education

    • social practices

    • and religious tolerance

  • Promoted a rational approach to religion

    • Supported the abolition of Sati (the practice of widow burning)

  • Established the Brahmo Samaj

    • A reformist religious and social organization

• Indian National Congress (INC) (1885)

  • Political party

  • Played a major role in India’s independence movement

  • Formed to demand more representation for Indians in government

  • Became the central organization pushing for full independence from British rule

• Sepoy Mutiny/ Indian Rebellion of 1857/ First War of Indian Independence(1857)

  • Revolt by Indian soldiers (sepoys) in the British East India Company army

  • Due to grievances

    • New rifle cartridges rumored to be greased with cow and pig fat

    • Violated Hindu and Muslim religious practices

  • The rebellion spread to many parts of northern and central India

  • The rebellion was eventually crushed by British forces

  • Resulted in the end of British East India Company control and the beginning of direct British rule (the Raj)

• British Raj (1858-1947)

  • Period of British rule over India

  • Began after the British East India Company was dissolved following the Sepoy Mutiny (1857)

  • British crown took direct control of India, governed through a British Viceroy

  • Aimed to exploit resources, establish a market for British goods, and control trade routes

Scramble for Africa

• Scramble for Africa (1881-1914)

  • Period of

    • Intense European colonization

    • Partitioning of Africa

  • European powers scrambled to claim territories for

    • economic exploitation

    • strategic control

    • and national prestige

  • Motivations

    • access to raw materials

    • (e.g., rubber, minerals, and agricultural products)

    • Desire to expand empires

    • Spread of European culture and religion.

  • POV

    • Africa seen as a "blank slate" for European powers to impose control

    • Europeans disregarded existing ethnic, cultural, and political boundaries

• Berlin Conference (1884-1885)

  • Essence

    • Setting

      • Berlin, Germany( 1884 - 1885)

    • Otto von Bismarck

      • Conference summoned by him

      • German Chancellor

    • Goal

      • Regulate European colonization and trade in Africa

      • Negotiate territorial claims without conflict among themselves.

    • Attendance

      • Major European powers

      • Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Portugal, etc.

  • Key Outcomes:

    • Partition of Africa

      • Africa was divided among European powers

      • Little regard for existing African societies or tribal territories.

    • Free Trade Zone

      • Some areas (like the Congo) were designated for free trade

      • European nations soon monopolized them however

    • Establishment of "Effective Occupation"

      • European powers were required to establish a physical presence (military, administrative) in the territories they claimed

      • Formalized colonial control over the continent.

    • No African Representation

      • No African leaders or representatives were present

      • Solidified European dominance over the continent.

• Impact

  • Inconsiderate Boundaries

    • The borders disregarded

      • ethnic

      • linguistic

      • and cultural divisions

    • Led to conflicts and tensions that persisted

  • Colonial Exploitation

    • African societies were subjected to

      • economic exploitation

      • forced labor

      • harsh systems of governance.

  • Legacy

    • Lasting impact on Africa’s

      • political and social developm/ent

    • Contributed t/o struggles for

      • independence

      • instability

      • and economic challenges after decolonization

Asia

• Vietnam:

  • French controlled c. 1850s

• Singapore, Hong Kon, Malaysia:

  • British controlled c. 1840-

"The Great Game"

• Russia and Britain compete for Central Asia and possibly India, 1870s

Types of Colonial Rule

Concessionary Companies:

• governments gave/ private companies me right to develop territories

  • Belgian Congo: resulted in brutal treatment of natives

Direct Rule:

• European colonial officers and bureaucrats assumed all responsibility for law and order:

  • French West Africa: secured more European whites to stuff the colony through their own tribal customs

Indirect Rule:

• Used existing native social structures. Gave responsibilities of ruling the colony through their own tribal customs

Economic and Social Changes - India

Before the British Raj (viceroy) — 1200-c. 1800:

• produced finished, handmade cotton textiles for export

After the British Raj:

• India exports raw cotton and imports machine made cotton textiles made in Britain.

Scientific and Popular Racism

Gobineau and other Europeans felt that biological differences between humans determined moral, ethical, intellectual and personality characteristics.

Nationalism and Anti-Colonial Movements

Indian nationalism:

• Ram Mohan Roy (c. 1820) & Hindu reformer who embraced some British colonial practices

  • Opposed caste rigidity, sati, child marriage; supported more freedom for woman

• Indian National Congress (1885): called for increasing participation of India in forming policy.

  • United with Muslims on forcing the British to recognize
    Indian Independence