828 to 832
Notes: Page 828
The Final Stages of WWII
Atomic Bombs and Japan's Surrender:
Hiroshima (August 6, 1945):
First atomic bomb killed 78,000 people outright; thousands more suffered injuries or radiation effects.
Soviet Entry into the War:
On August 8, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan and invaded Manchuria as agreed in earlier Allied conferences.
Nagasaki (August 9, 1945):
A second bomb killed tens of thousands more, compelling Japan to seek peace.
Formal Surrender (September 2, 1945):
Japan surrendered unconditionally but retained the emperor as a symbolic head under U.S. occupation.
Legacy of WWII:
Symbolized by the horrors of the Holocaust and the destructive power of the atomic bomb.
The war left a legacy of violence and mass destruction unprecedented in human history.
The Human Toll of WWII
Death and Casualty Statistics:
Military Deaths: ~15 million (approximate figures):
Soviet Union: 6 million.
Germany: 3.5 million.
China: 2.2 million.
Japan: 1.3 million.
Others: Poland (700,000), Britain & Commonwealth (400,000+), United States (300,000), France (200,000).
Civilian Fatalities: Estimated to be over twice as many as military deaths.
Total Casualties: Some estimates suggest 60 million deaths, including famine, bombings, and genocidal campaigns like the Holocaust.
Advances in Medicine:
New treatments like sulfa drugs, penicillin, and plasma transfusions saved many lives and reduced death rates among the wounded.
Foundations of the Peace
No Versailles-Like Treaty:
Unlike WWI, WWII ended without a single, definitive peace treaty.
Peace terms emerged gradually through a series of Allied conferences and postwar arrangements.
Key Allied Conferences:
Atlantic Charter (August 1941):
Roosevelt and Churchill outlined principles similar to Wilson’s Fourteen Points:
Restoration of sovereign rights and self-government for those deprived of it.
Equal access to world trade and resources.
Commitment to improved living standards, economic security, and freedom from fear and want.
Opposition to force and aggression in international affairs.
Served as the ideological foundation for postwar peace.
Subsequent Conferences:
Casablanca (1943): Strategy discussions for the North African campaign and unconditional surrender terms.
Cairo (1943): Allied plans for postwar Asia.
Teheran (1943): Stalin's participation; major strategies for Europe, including D-Day.
Yalta (February 1945): Key decisions on postwar Europe and the division of Germany.
Potsdam (July 1945): Final wartime conference addressing occupation and reconstruction plans.
This page encapsulates the climactic end of WWII, the devastating human toll, and the ideological groundwork for rebuilding a postwar global order.
Notes: Pages 828–832
Foundations of the Peace
Casablanca Conference (January 1943):
The Allies declared they would accept nothing less than the "unconditional surrender" of Axis powers.
Aimed to avoid the ambiguity that had surrounded the 1918 armistice.
Adopted without much consideration of the potential political consequences.
Teheran Conference (December 1943):
First meeting of Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin.
Key Discussions:
Postwar occupation and demilitarization of Germany.
Planning for a postwar international organization (later the United Nations).
Strategy for opening a second front in France (cross-Channel invasion).
Roosevelt aimed to maintain unity among Allies by postponing controversial political decisions.
Churchill, wary of Soviet expansion, proposed Mediterranean and Balkan operations to limit Soviet influence, but Roosevelt and Stalin overruled him.
Outcome of Teheran:
Agreement to open a second front in France in 1944 (D-Day).
Stalin pledged to launch a simultaneous offensive on the Eastern Front.
Lack of political agreements allowed Soviet dominance in eastern Europe to become inevitable.
Churchill and Stalin's Balkan Agreement (October 1944):
Churchill met Stalin to delineate spheres of influence in the Balkans:
Soviet dominance: Romania and Bulgaria.
Western dominance: Greece.
Shared influence: Hungary and Yugoslavia.
Roosevelt opposed this arrangement, viewing it as reminiscent of pre-1914 diplomacy.
Yalta Conference (February 1945):
Held at a Crimean summer resort when victory seemed imminent.
Participants: Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin.
Roosevelt positioned himself as a mediator, suspicious of Churchill's imperial ambitions and intent on maintaining Allied unity.
Key Agreements:
Poland and Eastern Europe:
Stalin's armies were already in control of eastern Europe and Poland.
The Allies formally accepted a provisional government in Poland with plans for eventual free elections (a contentious point).
Germany:
Agreed to the division of Germany into occupation zones among the Allies.
Plans to demilitarize and denazify Germany.
War in Asia:
Stalin promised to enter the war against Japan within three months of Germany's surrender.
In return, the USSR was promised territories in Asia, including southern Sakhalin and the Kurile Islands.
United Nations:
Agreement on the formation of the United Nations to prevent future conflicts.
Stalin agreed to participate, but with a Security Council veto power for major nations.
Tensions and Concerns at Yalta:
Poland:
Stalin had installed a pro-Soviet government in Poland, and despite agreements for free elections, the West doubted his commitment.
Eastern Europe:
Western powers reluctantly recognized Soviet dominance in areas liberated by the Red Army.
Churchill worried about Soviet control but had limited leverage.
Roosevelt’s Perspective:
Focused on maintaining the Allied coalition and establishing the United Nations.
Hoped Soviet cooperation would continue postwar.
Post-Yalta Developments:
Potsdam Conference (July 1945):
Occurred after Roosevelt's death, with Truman representing the U.S.
Focused on implementing decisions made at Yalta.
Revealed growing divisions between the Allies, particularly over the future of Germany and eastern Europe.
The seeds of the Cold War were becoming apparent.
Stalin’s Influence:
By war’s end, Soviet control extended over much of central and eastern Europe.
Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, and other nations fell under Soviet domination despite earlier promises of free elections.
Key Takeaways:
Unconditional Surrender:
Unified the Allies’ military goals but left political issues unresolved, fostering Soviet domination in eastern Europe.
Divergent Goals:
Roosevelt prioritized Allied unity and the establishment of the United Nations.
Churchill sought to limit Soviet influence but lacked leverage.
Stalin focused on securing Soviet security and expanding influence in eastern Europe.
Yalta as a Turning Point:
Symbolized Allied cooperation but exposed ideological and strategic rifts that would lead to the Cold War.
Notes: Pages 830–831
Key Agreements and Outcomes at Yalta
Poland and Eastern Europe:
Stalin established a pro-Soviet government in Poland, viewing Poland as a historical aggressor and a corridor of attack on Russia.
Western Allies (Roosevelt and Churchill) sought to ensure democratic self-determination:
Stalin verbally agreed to allow provisional governments “broadly representative of all democratic elements.”
Pledged to hold free elections, though these promises were not upheld in Soviet-controlled areas.
Declaration on Liberated Europe:
Promised sovereign rights and democratic self-determination for liberated states.
Proved largely symbolic, as Soviet domination in Eastern Europe negated its principles.
Territorial Adjustments:
Poland’s Boundaries:
Eastern boundary set along the Curzon Line (as envisioned in 1919).
Poland compensated with territory in the north and west at Germany’s expense.
Germany to be disarmed and divided into four occupation zones controlled by:
The U.S., U.K., U.S.S.R., and France (Churchill insisted on France’s inclusion).
Reparations:
Soviets proposed $20 billion in reparations, half of which would go to the U.S.S.R.
Reparations to be distributed to countries that suffered the most during the war.
The United Nations (UN):
Founding Agreement:
A key outcome of Yalta was the unanimous approval of the United Nations framework.
Roosevelt prioritized Soviet participation, believing the Great Powers acting together could ensure global peace.
Structure:
Security Council:
Permanent members (Great Powers): U.S., U.S.S.R., U.K., China, and France.
Each had veto power over important decisions.
General Assembly:
Soviets sought 16 votes (one for each Soviet republic); eventually granted three (Russia, Ukraine, Belarus) to maintain harmony.
Smaller nations were included but played a secondary role compared to the Great Powers.
East Asia:
Soviet Neutrality and Involvement:
The Soviets had remained neutral in the Pacific War until this point, honoring their non-aggression pact with Japan.
At Yalta, critical agreements linked political and military strategy:
Stalin promised to join the war against Japan within three months of Germany’s defeat.
In return, the U.S. and Britain promised territorial concessions:
Soviet control of southern Sakhalin and the Kurile Islands.
Influence over Manchuria, including the restoration of Russian rights lost to Japan after the Russo-Japanese War.
Strategic Importance:
These agreements underscored the interdependence of military and political considerations in shaping postwar Asia.
Western Allies sought Soviet participation to accelerate Japan’s defeat, despite the territorial price.
Tensions and Long-term Consequences:
Stalin’s Gains:
Secured dominance in Eastern Europe.
Extracted territorial concessions in Asia.
Achieved Great Power status within the UN framework.
Western Concerns:
Roosevelt and Churchill were wary of Soviet ambitions but prioritized maintaining Allied unity.
Hopes for democratic self-determination in Eastern Europe remained unfulfilled, sowing the seeds of Cold War tensions.
This section highlights the balance of power negotiations, where military needs during the war overshadowed political foresight about postwar rivalries. The agreements at Yalta reflected the Allies’ desire for unity but planted the roots for future conflict, particularly in Eastern Europe and East Asia.
Notes: Pages 831–832
The Yalta Conference (February 1945): Final Agreements
Soviet Participation in the Pacific War:
Stalin promised the U.S.S.R. would enter the war against Japan "two to three months" after Germany's defeat.
Concessions to the Soviets:
Territories lost in the 1904–1905 Russo-Japanese War were to be returned, including:
Southern Sakhalin.
Port Arthur.
The Kurile Islands, which had never been Russian, were also promised.
These territorial gains ensured Soviet cooperation in the Pacific and secured Stalin’s domestic support for joining the war.
Roosevelt’s Strategic Goals:
Military Priorities:
Roosevelt’s concessions were driven by the immediate need for Soviet assistance in defeating Japan.
Preserving the Coalition:
Roosevelt aimed to maintain unity among the Allies to ensure a smooth transition from war to peace.
Vision for Postwar Harmony:
Believed that wartime collaboration would lead to long-term peace, despite Stalin’s territorial ambitions.
Churchill’s Reservations:
Churchill was wary of Stalin's intentions and preferred a clearer division of spheres of influence.
Such arrangements were dismissed as outdated, reflecting the idealism of the Atlantic Charter, which promised sovereign self-determination for all nations.
The Potsdam Conference (July 1945): A New Chapter
Leadership Changes:
United States:
Harry S. Truman succeeded Roosevelt as President following Roosevelt’s death in April 1945.
United Kingdom:
Clement Attlee replaced Winston Churchill midway through the conference after Labour’s electoral victory.
Soviet Union:
Stalin remained the constant, representing Soviet interests.
Evolving Disagreements:
By this time, tensions between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to surface, reflecting growing divisions over:
The future of Eastern Europe.
Territorial arrangements.
The implementation of agreements reached at Yalta.
The Transition to Postwar Relations:
The Potsdam Conference marked a shift from wartime unity to the early stages of postwar rivalry, foreshadowing the Cold War.
Key Takeaways:
Concessions at Yalta:
Aimed at immediate military objectives, particularly defeating Japan.
Sacrificed some principles of the Atlantic Charter and self-determination.
Potsdam Dynamics:
Highlighted leadership changes and growing mistrust among the Allies.
Demonstrated the challenges of translating wartime agreements into postwar realities.
These conferences laid the groundwork for both the postwar settlement and the emerging Cold War tensions. While immediate military goals were achieved, the decisions made at Yalta and Potsdam sowed the seeds for geopolitical rivalries that would dominate the latter half of the 20th century.
Notes: Page 832
Key Outcomes of the Potsdam Conference
Tensions with the Soviet Union:
Disputes deepened over:
Soviet control in Poland, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans.
German reparations and broader postwar settlements.
Agreements Reached at Potsdam:
Postwar Treatment of Germany:
Germany to undergo:
Disarmament.
Demilitarization.
Denazification.
Punishment of war criminals.
Each occupying power could extract reparations "in kind" from its respective zone.
The Soviet Union also received additional reparations from the Western zones, effectively meeting its original demand for $10 billion.
Division of Germany:
Germany was divided into four occupation zones under the control of the U.S., Britain, France, and the U.S.S.R.
Territorial Adjustments:
Polish Administration of Eastern German Territories:
The Polish-German boundary was set at the Oder-Neisse rivers, extending Poland’s borders westward by about 100 miles.
This compensated Poland for Soviet expansion into its eastern territories.
Key cities affected:
Königsberg became the Soviet city of Kaliningrad.
Stettin and Breslau became the Polish cities of Szczecin and Wroclaw.
Danzig was renamed Gdansk.
Expulsion of German Populations:
Millions of Germans were expelled or fled from territories in Eastern Europe and Czechoslovakia.
The expulsions were supposed to be orderly, but were marked by chaos and suffering.
The Council of Foreign Ministers:
Tasked with preparing peace treaties with former Axis satellite states.
Composed of representatives from the U.S., Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and China.
Postwar Peace Treaties:
Treaties Signed in February 1947:
With Italy, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Finland:
Reparations were agreed upon.
Territorial adjustments were finalized.
Japan’s Peace Treaty (1951):
Signed by Allied powers, but not the Soviet Union.
The Soviet Union signed its own treaty with Japan in 1956.
Germany:
No final peace treaty was signed with Germany for decades.
Germany remained divided, symbolizing the growing Cold War tensions.
Aftermath:
Widening East-West Divide:
The collapse of the wartime Western-Soviet coalition shattered hopes for a harmonious postwar order.
The Cold War began, overshadowing the triumph over fascist totalitarianism with new crises and ideological confrontations.
Legacy of Potsdam:
The agreements at Potsdam defined the geopolitical landscape of postwar Europe but failed to establish the foundation for lasting peace.
The division of Germany and the unresolved tensions foreshadowed decades of East-West rivalry.
These notes summarize the outcomes and consequences of the Potsdam Conference and its role in shaping the postwar world. The events on this page highlight the transition from Allied unity to Cold War division.