Flashcards for ppx

Essentials of Geography

Geography Definition

• Meaning:

  • Geo means "Earth"; graphein means "to write".

  • Geography is the science that studies the relationships among geographic areas, natural systems, society, cultural activities, and their interdependence through space (spatial).

What Is Spatial?

• Definition:

  • The term spatial refers to the nature and character of physical space, its measurement, and the distribution of things within it.

• Five Themes of Geography:

  • Location

  • Place

  • Region

  • Movement

  • Human–Earth relationships

• Physical Geography:

  • Analyzes physical elements and processes that make up the environment: energy, air, water, weather, climate, landforms, soils, animals, plants, microorganisms, and Earth itself (Christopherson et al., 2019).

Earth Systems Concepts

• Definition of a System:

  • A system is any ordered, interrelated set of things and their attributes, linked by flows of energy and matter.

Conservation Laws of Mass and Energy

• Mass:

  • Neither destroyed nor created.

• Energy:

  • The capacity to change the motion of, or to do work on, matter.

  • Energy is neither destroyed nor created.

• Equation:

  • Input − Output = Storage Change

Open System and Closed System

• Open System:

  • A system with inputs and outputs of energy or matter.

• Closed System:

  • A system that is shut off from the surrounding environment; it is self-contained. Closed systems are rare in nature.

• Earth Systems:

  • Open system in terms of energy.

  • Closed system in terms of physical matter and resources.

Earth's Dimensions

• Polar Circumference: 40,008 km

• Equatorial Circumference: 40,075 km

• Geoidal Bulge:

  • Differences in equatorial and polar diameters (Equator: 12,756 km, North Pole: 12,714 km).

Earth's Coordinate Grid System

• Geographic Grid:

  • Provides a system for locating places on earth’s surface using circles that are perpendicular and parallel to the axis of rotation.

  • Includes latitude (parallels) and longitude (meridians).

Parallels of Latitude

• Definition:

  • Latitude is the angular distance north or south of the equator, measured from the center of Earth (e.g., 49°N, 12°S).

• Characteristics:

  • A line connecting all points of the same latitudinal angle is a parallel.

  • The equator is the largest.

• Precision:

  • 1 degree of latitude = 110 km of linear distance.

  • 1 minute of latitude = 1/60th of a degree = about 1.83 km.

  • 1 second of arc = 1/60th of a minute = about 0.031 km (roughly 30 m). Example: Waterloo = lat. 43° 28' 04" N.

Latitudinal Geographic Zones

• Key Lines:

• Tropic of Cancer, Equator, Arctic Circle, Tropic of Capricorn, Antarctic Circle

• Latitudinal Zones:

  • Arctic: 66.5°N to North Pole

  • Subarctic: 55°N to 66.5°N

  • Midlatitude: 35°N to 55°N

  • Subtropical: 23.5°N to 35°N

  • Equatorial and Tropical: 23.5°N to 23.5°S

  • Subtropical: 23.5°S to 35°S

  • Midlatitude: 35°S to 55°S

  • Subantarctic: 55°S to 66.5°S

  • Antarctic: 66.5°S to South Pole

Meridians of Longitude

• Definition:

  • Longitude is the angular distance east or west of a point on Earth’s surface, measured from the center of Earth (e.g., 10°E, 10°W).

• Characteristics:

  • N-S Compass directions, measured from the Prime Meridian (0°).

Great Circles & Small Circles

• Great Circle:

  • Any circle of Earth’s circumference whose center coincides with the center of Earth.

  • Only the equatorial parallel is a great circle; all other parallels decrease in length towards the poles (small circles).

International Date Line

• Location:

  • Approximately along the 180th meridian (180°E or 180°W).

  • Adjustments for time: Add a day when crossing eastward and subtract a day when crossing westward.

Earth’s Rotation

• Rotation Characteristics:

  • Planet spins slowly; 1 rotation = 1 solar day; counter-clockwise direction when viewed from the North Pole.

• Effect of Rotation:

  • Impacts geographic grid, daily rhythms, movement of air/water, tidal influences, convenience for humans.

Modern International Standard Time Zones

• Time Zone Structure:

  • 24 time zones; Earth revolves at 360°/24 hours = 15°/hour; each time zone corresponds to 15° of longitude.

The Scale of Maps

• Types of Scales:

  • Small Scale (e.g., 1:2,500,000)

  • Medium Scale (e.g., 1:125,000)

  • Large Scale (e.g., 1:24,000)

• Examples of Scale Representations:

  • Representative fraction: 1:250,000 or 1/250,000.

  • Written Scale: 1 cm = 2.5 km for small scale, and 1 cm = 500 m for large scale.

Classes of Map Projections

• Map Projection Types:

  • Cylindrical

  • Planar

  • Conic

  • Oval

• Standard Lines:

  • Different shapes of projections accommodate various geographical needs and applications.