Chapter 3 – The Self: Comprehensive Study Notes

Opening Case: EFF Uniforms & Self-Representation

• Julius Malema’s Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF) deliberately wear red workers’ overalls/berets in Parliament.
  • Red = blood shed for economic freedom (Marikana, Sharpeville).
  • Outfits = solidarity with domestic workers & manual labourers.
• Parliament objected (dress-code); EFF framed objections as
  • Class prejudice / self-hate by ANC.
  • Rejection of European standards: “To you proper is European; we are not white.”
• Illustrates core theme: people manage impressions not only for elite audiences (bosses, dates) but for in-group constituencies (workers, fans).

The Concept of “Self”

• Peculiarly human; far more elaborate than in other species.
• Functions as an “interface” between biological organism & sociocultural network.
• Three MAIN PARTS (Fig 3.1):
  • Self-knowledge / Self-concept = beliefs & stored info about oneself.
  • Interpersonal (Public) Self = image conveyed to others.
  • Agent Self / Executive Function = decision-making, self-control, active responding.
• Key FUNCTIONS
  • Gain social acceptance; play social roles; balance selfish impulses vs social conscience.
  • Internalise cultural morals to override pure self-interest.

Cultural Styles of Selfhood

• Independent self-construal (Western): emphasises uniqueness, autonomy (“self-made”).
• Interdependent self-construal (Asian/African): emphasises connectedness, roles, ubuntu (“I am because we are”).
• Exercise: list “Who am I?”—count unique vs relational answers → shows personal tilt.

True vs Public Self Debate

• Cultures differ on which side is “real”:
  • Some value inner feelings (e.g., love as essence of marriage).
  • Others value public role performance & vows.
• Historical roots: Western class/racial prejudice (Africans stereotyped; whites claim “inner” superiority).

Social Roles & Flexibility

• Culture = system of roles; self must adopt, shed, switch.
• Human selves unlike ants: flexible, can become student → worker → parent → leader.
• Social mobility stories (Mandela, Zuma) show role change.

Self-Awareness

Types

• Private = inward focus (thoughts, emotions, traits).
• Public = outward focus (how others perceive me).

Evaluation Function

• Self-awareness → compare to Standards (ideals, norms, laws, past, others).
• Outcomes when falling short (Fig 3.3):
  • Change (improve self or adjust standard).
  • Escape (avoid mirrors, drink alcohol, suicide, binge eating).

Effects

• Increases moral behaviour (less cheating, healthier food choices, reduced aggression, better diet compliance).
• Necessary for Self-Regulation: monitoring progress toward goals.

Sources of Self-Knowledge

1. Looking-glass self (Cooley): imagine appearance → imagine judgment → emotional reaction.
   • Accuracy limited: others hide criticism; we resist negative feedback.
2. Introspection
   • “Privileged access” to thoughts/feelings, but Nisbett & Wilson (1977): people often misidentify causes (stocking study, sexy-car ads).
   • Children < ≈11 think parents know them better.
3. Social Comparison (Festinger 1954)
   • Upward (better others) → inspiration or discouragement.
   • Downward (worse others) → ego boost.
4. Self-Perception Theory (Bem 1965)
   • Infer internal states from observing own behaviour—esp. when inner cues weak/ambiguous.
   • Overjustification Effect: adding expected extrinsic rewards ($$) reduces intrinsic motivation (puzzle study, military cadets).
5. Phenomenal / Working Self-Concept
   • Only subset active at moment; shifts with context, salience (solo woman among men, stereotype threat), temporal focus (future = vague/abstract).

Motives for Seeking Self-Knowledge

• Appraisal Motive = truth‐seeking (weakest).
• Self-Enhancement = seek flattering info (strongest, emotional).
• Consistency / Self-Verification = confirm existing beliefs (cognitive).
• Duplex mind: automatic system = automatic egotism (“everything good is me”); deliberate system can correct toward accuracy/modesty.

Self-Esteem

• Evaluation of self; high = “I’m great”, low = “I’m so-so” (not “I’m awful”).
• Low SE: conflicted self-concept, seek self-protection, stronger emotional swings.
• Positive Illusions (Taylor & Brown 1988): Normal (non-depressed) people
  • Overestimate qualities.
  • Overestimate control.
  • Unrealistic optimism.
• Self-Deception Strategies
  • Self-serving bias (credit success, blame failure).
  • Greater scepticism toward negative feedback.
  • Selective attention/memory (replay triumphs, forget flops).
  • Choose favourable social comparisons; flexible trait definitions.
  • Self-handicapping (create obstacles—alcohol, lack sleep—so future failure excused; success inflated).
• Self-reference effect: info linked to self remembered better.
• Endowment effect: owned/chosen items valued more.
• High SE Benefits: initiative (speak up, approach others, persist) & good feelings (buffer stress, resilience).
• Costs: aggression when ego threatened, prejudice, risky behaviour; extreme = narcissism (excessive self-love, exploitative).
• Sociometer Theory (Leary): SE monitors social acceptance; like a petrol gauge.

Self-Presentation (Impression Management)

• Any behaviour aimed at conveying info/image to others (statements, clothes, cars, Facebook profile, excuses, modesty).
• Two key functions:
  1. Audience-pleasing (gain liking, respect) → trade-off Favourability vs Plausibility (boast only within believable limits).
  2. Identity Claiming: obtain social validation for desired identity (artist, believer); may resist audience disapproval (Cassie Bernall martyrdom).
• Presence of observers changes behaviour (hand-washing, attitude change studies).
• Self-presentation can override health/safety (tanning, smoking, unprotected sex, fast driving).
• Cultural nuances: individualistic cultures favour self-enhancement; collectivistic value modesty & group harmony.

Key Phenomena & Effects (Glossary-Style)

• Private/Public Self-Awareness
• Standards
• Self-regulation
• Automatic Egotism
• Phenomenal Self
• Upward/Downward Comparison
• Overjustification
• Self-serving Bias
• Self-handicapping
• Self-reference Effect
• Endowment Effect
• Sociometer

Practical Implications & Applications

• Boosting SE indiscriminately (schools) often ineffective; better to foster competence & social acceptance.
• Behaviour change (quit smoking, get fit) succeeds when social environment supports new identity.
• Monitor self with clear standards; if goals feel attainable, self-awareness motivates improvement—if hopeless, prompts escape (adjust goal or context).
• Manage extrinsic rewards carefully to avoid undermining intrinsic interest.
• Use audience accountability to encourage ethical behaviour (mirrors, publicity).

Ethical & Societal Considerations

• Media’s beauty standards → self-discrepancies & eating disorders.
• Colonial/apartheid legacy: internalised self-hate, colourism (skin bleaching, “yellow bone”).
• Policy (affirmative action) shapes group self-concepts (Coloured/Indian perceptions of exclusion).

Study Checklist / Learning Objectives Met

• Explain why complex self aids cultural living.
• Summarise sources & motives of self-knowledge.
• Trace path from sources → self-concept.
• Critique high self-esteem & positive illusions (benefits vs drawbacks).
• Evaluate functions & risks of self-presentation.