Chapter 3 – The Self: Comprehensive Study Notes

Julius Malema’s Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF) deliberately wear red workers’ overalls/berets in Parliament.
- Red = blood shed for economic freedom (Marikana, Sharpeville).
- Outfits = solidarity with domestic workers & manual labourers.
Parliament objected (dress-code); EFF framed objections as
- Class prejudice / self-hate by ANC.
- Rejection of European standards: “To you proper is European; we are not white.”
Illustrates core theme: people manage impressions not only for elite audiences (bosses, dates) but for in-group constituencies (workers, fans).

Peculiarly human; far more elaborate than in other species.
Functions as an “interface” between biological organism & sociocultural network.
Three MAIN PARTS (Fig 3.1):
- Self-knowledge / Self-concept = beliefs & stored info about oneself.
- Interpersonal (Public) Self = image conveyed to others.
- Agent Self / Executive Function = decision-making, self-control, active responding.
Key FUNCTIONS
- Gain social acceptance; play social roles; balance selfish impulses vs social conscience.
- Internalise cultural morals to override pure self-interest.

Independent self-construal (Western): emphasises uniqueness, autonomy (“self-made”).
Interdependent self-construal (Asian/African): emphasises connectedness, roles, ubuntu (“I am because we are”).
Exercise: list “Who am I?”—count unique vs relational answers → shows personal tilt.

Cultures differ on which side is “real”:
- Some value inner feelings (e.g., love as essence of marriage).
- Others value public role performance & vows.
Historical roots: Western class/racial prejudice (Africans stereotyped; whites claim “inner” superiority).

Culture = system of roles; self must adopt, shed, switch.
Human selves unlike ants: flexible, can become student → worker → parent → leader.
Social mobility stories (Mandela, Zuma) show role change.

Self-awareness → compare to Standards (ideals, norms, laws, past, others).
Outcomes when falling short (Fig 3.3):
- Change (improve self or adjust standard).
- Escape (avoid mirrors, drink alcohol, suicide, binge eating).

Increases moral behaviour (less cheating, healthier food choices, reduced aggression, better diet compliance).
Necessary for Self-Regulation: monitoring progress toward goals.

Looking-glass self (Cooley): imagine appearance → imagine judgment → emotional reaction.
- Accuracy limited: others hide criticism; we resist negative feedback.
Introspection
- “Privileged access” to thoughts/feelings, but Nisbett & Wilson (1977): people often misidentify causes (stocking study, sexy-car ads).
- Children < ≈11 think parents know them better.
Social Comparison (Festinger 1954)
- Upward (better others) → inspiration or discouragement.
- Downward (worse others) → ego boost.
Self-Perception Theory (Bem 1965)
- Infer internal states from observing own behaviour—esp. when inner cues weak/ambiguous.
- Overjustification Effect: adding expected extrinsic rewards ($$) reduces intrinsic motivation (puzzle study, military cadets).
Phenomenal / Working Self-Concept
- Only subset active at moment; shifts with context, salience (solo woman among men, stereotype threat), temporal focus (future = vague/abstract).

Appraisal Motive = truth‐seeking (weakest).
Self-Enhancement = seek flattering info (strongest, emotional).
Consistency / Self-Verification = confirm existing beliefs (cognitive).
Duplex mind: automatic system = automatic egotism (“everything good is me”); deliberate system can correct toward accuracy/modesty.

Evaluation of self; high = “I’m great”, low = “I’m so-so” (not “I’m awful”).
Low SE: conflicted self-concept, seek self-protection, stronger emotional swings.
Positive Illusions (Taylor & Brown 1988): Normal (non-depressed) people
- Overestimate qualities.
- Overestimate control.
- Unrealistic optimism.
Self-Deception Strategies
- Self-serving bias (credit success, blame failure).
- Greater scepticism toward negative feedback.
- Selective attention/memory (replay triumphs, forget flops).
- Choose favourable social comparisons; flexible trait definitions.
- Self-handicapping (create obstacles—alcohol, lack sleep—so future failure excused; success inflated).
Self-reference effect: info linked to self remembered better.
Endowment effect: owned/chosen items valued more.
High SE Benefits: initiative (speak up, approach others, persist) & good feelings (buffer stress, resilience).
Costs: aggression when ego threatened, prejudice, risky behaviour; extreme = narcissism (excessive self-love, exploitative).
Sociometer Theory (Leary): SE monitors social acceptance; like a petrol gauge.

Any behaviour aimed at conveying info/image to others (statements, clothes, cars, Facebook profile, excuses, modesty).
Two key functions:
1. Audience-pleasing (gain liking, respect) → trade-off Favourability vs Plausibility (boast only within believable limits).
2. Identity Claiming: obtain social validation for desired identity (artist, believer); may resist audience disapproval (Cassie Bernall martyrdom).
Presence of observers changes behaviour (hand-washing, attitude change studies).
Self-presentation can override health/safety (tanning, smoking, unprotected sex, fast driving).
Cultural nuances: individualistic cultures favour self-enhancement; collectivistic value modesty & group harmony.

Boosting SE indiscriminately (schools) often ineffective; better to foster competence & social acceptance.
Behaviour change (quit smoking, get fit) succeeds when social environment supports new identity.
Monitor self with clear standards; if goals feel attainable, self-awareness motivates improvement—if hopeless, prompts escape (adjust goal or context).
Manage extrinsic rewards carefully to avoid undermining intrinsic interest.
Use audience accountability to encourage ethical behaviour (mirrors, publicity).

Media’s beauty standards → self-discrepancies & eating disorders.
Colonial/apartheid legacy: internalised self-hate, colourism (skin bleaching, “yellow bone”).
Policy (affirmative action) shapes group self-concepts (Coloured/Indian perceptions of exclusion).