CP

SNC2D Exam Review Notes

Cell Biology

  • Cell Theory:
    • All living organisms are made of one or more cells.
    • The cell is the basic organizational unit of life.
    • All cells come from pre-existing cells.
    • Plant cells contain chloroplasts
  • Cell Structures and Functions:
    • All cells contain cytoplasm, nucleic acid, and a membrane.
    • Cells vary in size and shape.
    • Vacuole: Stores cellular waste.
    • Gene: Directs protein production.
    • Chromosome: Coiled structure made mostly of DNA; a collection of genes.
  • Cell Division:
    • In cell division, two identical cells are formed.
    • Multicellular organisms grow through cell division.
    • Single-celled organisms reproduce through cell division.
    • Multicellular organisms replace lost or damaged cells through cell division.
    • Mitosis:
      • Anaphase: Replicated chromosomes separate.
  • Cell Membrane:
    • Materials cross the cell membrane through diffusion and osmosis.
  • Tissues:
    • A tissue is a group of similar cells working together in the body.
    • Muscle Tissue:
      • Smooth Muscle: Found in the walls of the stomach and esophagus.
    • Connective Tissue: Fat is made up of connective tissue.
  • Stem Cells:
    • Pluripotent Stem Cells: Can become any type of animal cell.
    • Adult stem cells: Limited to what type of cell they can become.
  • Cell Differentiation:
    • The process by which cells develop from similar cells into cells that have specific functions within a multicellular organism; also known as cell specialization.
  • Cell Cycle Checkpoints:
    • Purpose is to send damaged cells to their death.
    • Signals repair of cells must occur.
  • Genetic Disorders:
    • Testing for the presence of genetic disorders is called DNA screening.

Organisms

  • Amphibian Hearts:
    • Have a 3-chambered heart with two atria and one ventricle.
  • Gas Exchange in Humans:
    • Takes place in the alveoli.

Chemistry

  • Valence Electrons:
    • Calcium has 2 valence electrons.
  • Ions:
    • A positive ion is called a cation.
  • Metals with Multiple Charges:
    • Silver (Ag) does not have more than one possible charge.
  • Nomenclature:
    • PbSe is Lead (II) Selenide.
    • Al2(CO3)_3: The ratio of aluminum ions to carbonate ions is 2:3.
    • Calcium nitrate is Ca(NO3)2.
    • IBr3 is Iodine tribromide.
  • Prefixes:
    • Hexa corresponds to 6, not 7.
      • Penta - 5
      • Di - 2
      • Tri - 3
      • Tetra - 4
  • Chemical Bonds:
    • Electrons are transferred in an ionic bond between atoms of a metal and a non-metal.
  • Chemical Formulas:
    • 3MgCl2 contains 3 magnesium atoms and 6 chlorine atoms.
  • Evidence of Chemical Change:
    • A change in color.
    • Formation of a new gas.
    • Formation of a precipitate.
    • The dissolving of a solid reactant in the solvent implies there is no chemical change
  • Decomposition Reaction:
    • General equation: AB → A + B
  • Single Displacement Reaction:
    • If the products are Cl2 and MgF2, the original reactants are F2 and MgCl2.
  • Acids:
    • An oxyacid contains oxygen like HClO_3.
    • HBr is Hydrobromic acid.
  • pH Scale:
    • A solution at pH 8 is basic.
    • A solution at pH 0 is very acidic
    • A solution at pH 10 is basic
    • A solution at pH 5 is acidic
  • pH and Hydrogen Ion Concentration:
    • A solution at pH 3 has 100 times higher concentration of hydrogen ions than a solution at pH 5.
  • Neutralization Reaction:
    • An acid and a base react to form a salt and water.
  • Law of Conservation of Mass:
    * Mass of reactants should equal mass of products

Environmental Science

  • Greenhouse Gases:
    • Building up in the atmosphere.
  • Anthropogenic Factors Affecting Climate Change:
    • The burning of fossil fuels.
  • Ocean Conveyer Belt:
    • The deep current is colder and saltier than the surface current.
  • Forcing Agents on Global Temperature:
    • CO2 has the greatest impact.

Optics

  • Angle of Reflection:
    • The angle between the normal and the reflected ray.
  • Incident Ray:
    • A ray of light that travels toward a surface.
  • Transmission of Light:
    • In the form of electromagnetic waves.
    • In straight lines.
    • As energy.
  • Light Density:
    • If light passing from one medium to another bends, the mediums have different densities.
  • Speed of Light in a Vacuum:
    • 3.0 x 10^8 m/s
  • Snell's Law:
    * n1sin\theta1 = n2sin\theta2

True/False

  • The endoplasmic reticulum is NOT responsible for the production of usable energy in a cell (False).
  • A gene carries the instructions to make a specific protein (True).
  • DNA replication does NOT occur during the G1 phase of the cell cycle (False). It occurs during S phase.
  • Na+ has the same electronic structure as Ne (True).
  • Melting snow is NOT an example of a chemical change (False). It is a physical change.
  • An oxyacid is a compound containing hydrogen and one other element (False).
  • Blood is NOT made up of predominantly white blood cells and platelets (False). Blood is composed of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma.

Matching

  • Carcinogen - E. Cancer-causing agent
  • Cartilage - I. Connective tissue that provides support
  • Mitosis - A. Process of cell division
  • Synthesis Reaction - D. Involves the combination of smaller atoms/molecules
  • Flammability - J. Chemical property
  • Negative Feedback - G. Global warming, ↑ volcanic activity, causing cooling
  • Visible Light - B. Part of the Electromagnetic Spectrum
  • Multivalent Ion - C. More than one possible charge
  • Cation - F. Positive Ion

Short Answer

  • Diffusion:
    • Diffusion is the process involved in the exchange of gases in organisms.
    • It is the movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
    • Examples:
      • Worm: Oxygen diffuses across their moist skin.
      • Frog: Gas exchange occurs through their skin and lungs via diffusion.
      • Human: Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli in the lungs into the blood, and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli.
  • Stem Cells:
    • Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can differentiate into specialized cells.
    • Pluripotent Stem Cells: Can become any type of animal cell.
    • Adult Stem Cells: More limited in their differentiation potential.
  • Effects of Global Warming on Human Health:
    • Increased heat waves and heat-related illnesses.
    • Spread of infectious diseases due to changing climate patterns.
    • Air pollution and respiratory illnesses.
    • Food and water insecurity due to disrupted agricultural practices.
  • Positive Feedback:
    • Positive feedback is a process where the effects of an initial change are amplified, leading to further changes in the same direction.
    • Example: As global temperatures rise, ice melts, reducing the Earth's albedo (reflectivity). This causes more solar radiation to be absorbed, leading to further warming and more ice melt.
  • Goldilocks Phenomenon:
    • The Goldilocks phenomenon refers to the idea that Earth's conditions are "just right" for life.
    • It's the perfect distance from the sun, has water, and has oxygen/ozone layer to support life.
    • It is important because it allows for the existence and evolution of life as we know it.
  • Factors Influencing Global Warming:
    • Human Factors:
      • Burning of Fossil Fuels: Releases greenhouse gases like CO2 into the atmosphere, trapping heat.
      • Deforestation: Reduces the number of trees available to absorb CO2, increasing its concentration in the atmosphere.
    • Natural Factors:
      • Volcanic Activity: Volcanic eruptions release gases and particles into the atmosphere, which can have both warming and cooling effects.
      • Changes in Solar Activity: Fluctuations in the sun's energy output can affect Earth's temperature.
  • Wavelength Calculation:
    • Given: Frequency (f) = 5.00 × 10^{14} Hz, Speed of light (c) = 3.00 × 10^8 m/s
    • Formula: \lambda = c/f
    • \lambda = (3.00 × 10^8 m/s) / (5.00 × 10^{14} Hz) = 6.00 × 10^{-7} m
    • Conversion to nanometers: 6.00 × 10^{-7} m × (10^9 nm / 1 m) = 600 nm
  • Speed of Light in a Medium:
    • Given: Index of refraction (n) = 2.50, Speed of light in a vacuum (c) = 3.00 × 10^8 m/s
    • Formula: v = c/n
    • v = (3.00 × 10^8 m/s) / 2.50 = 1.20 × 10^8 m/s
  • Refraction of Light:
    • Since the light is bending away from the normal, Liquid A has a high density.
    • The speed of light decreases in a high density
  • Snell's Law Application:
    • Given: \theta1 = 35°, n1 = 1.00, n_2 = 1.50
    • Formula: n1sin\theta1 = n2sin\theta2
      • (1.00)sin(35°) = (1.50)sin(\theta_2)
      • sin(\theta_2) = (1.00 × 0.5736) / 1.50 = 0.3824
      • \theta_2 = sin^{-1}(0.3824) = 22.5°
    • As light enters the glass, its speed decreases. The higher the refractive index, the slower the speed of light. Furthermore, frequency does not change, but wavelength decreases.

Chemical Reactions

  • Synthesis:

    • A + B \rightarrow AB

  • Decomposition:

    • A B \rightarrow A + B

  • Single Displacement:

    • A + BC \rightarrow AC + B

  • Double Displacement:

    • AB + CD \rightarrow AD + CB

  • Hydrochloric Acid and Sodium Hydroxide:

    • Word Equation: Hydrochloric acid + Sodium hydroxide → Sodium chloride + Water
    • Balanced Equation: HCl + NaOH \rightarrow NaCl + H_2O
    • Type of Reaction: Neutralization (Acid-Base)
    • Law of Conservation of Mass: Mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
    • Mass of Final Product:
      • 76.457 g (reactants) = 58.442 g (NaCl) + x (water)
      • x = 76.457 g - 58.442 g = 18.015 g

  • Sodium and Copper (II) Chloride

    • Products: Copper and Sodium Chloride
    • Balanced Chemical Equation: 2Na(s) + CuCl_2(aq) \rightarrow Cu(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
    • Type of Reaction: Single Displacement Reaction.