GEOGRAPHY UNIT 2 TEST

Lesson 2.1: Geological Time Zones and History of the Earth;

Physical Diversity: The variety of physical traits/characteristics which display a difference among individuals, regions…

There are TWO types of forces:

1. One that builds up

2. One that breaks down

An example of breakage/wear:  Mountains and elevated areas being worn down by erosion (timely manner).

Geological Timeline: (Oldest to Most Recent)

1. Precambrian Era (4.6 billion years - 570 million years ago)

• Canadian, African, Brazilian, and Australian Shields formed

• First single cell/multiple cell organisms formed

2. Paleozoic Era (570 Million years - 245 Million Years ago)

• Large parts of North America Created (Appalchians Formed)

• Shallow Water started to emerge (200m)

• Amphibians, Fish, Insects appeared

• Large Swamps

• First plants/animals

3. Mesozoic (245 Million years - 66 Million Years ago)

• Rocky mountains formed

• Inuitan Mountains Formed

• Shallow Seas interior of NA

• Dinosaurs

• First mammals/birds

• First flowering plants (produce flowers)

4. Cenozoic (66 Million Years - The Present)

• Ice sheets cover North America

• Continents take their current shape

• Rocky Mountains Complete

• Humans (Age of Mammals)

• Modern forms of life evolve fully

Lesson 2.2: Structure of Earth;

What is the Earth made of: 

1. Crust

• Location: Outermost layer (Surface)

• Thickness: 5–70 km (thin under oceans, thicker under continents)

• Composition: Solid rock—mainly granite (continental) and basalt (oceanic)

• Key Features:

  • Broken into tectonic plates

  • Site of earthquakes and volcanic activity

  • Supports all life on Earth

2. Mantle

• Location: Beneath the crust, makes up most of Earth's volume

• Thickness: About 2,900 km

• Composition: Semi-solid rock (Magnesium) sitting in a rock called magma

• Key Features:

  • Upper Mantle (includes asthenosphere): Hot and flows slowly, allowing tectonic plates to move

  • Lower Mantle: More solid due to higher pressure

  • Heat from the mantle drives convection currents, moving plates

3. Core

• Location: Center of the Earth

• Thickness: About 3,500 km total

• Composition: Mostly iron and nickel

• Hottest Region

Lesson 2.2b: Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics;

The Theory of Continental Drift: A theory proposed by Alfred Wegener, where continents could move and shift over long periods of time. He believed that all continents were connected in a super continent called Pangea at one point.

Alfred's 4 Evidence: 

1. Jigsaw Puzzle: The coastlines of the continents seem to fit together.

2. Fossil Correlation: Similar fossil remains from the same time period are on different continents yet separated by oceans.

3. Geological Evidence: The same landforms, rocks, and mountain ranges made up of the same rock found on different continents separated by Oceans.

4. Past Climate Data: Evidence of glacial deposits found in hot countries such as Africa and South America, indicating a cold climate previously was present.

What are Plate Tectonics: The Scientific Theory that explains the crust is broken into large plates, which slowly move over a semi-fluid Asthenosphere, the earth is divided into 12 major plates.

Asthenosphere: Weak and easily deformed layer acting as a lubricant for the Lithosphere (Plate Tectonics) to move over.

Lithosphere: A make up of the crust and upper mantle, a hard and solid part of the earth.

Faults: Breaks in the Earth's Crust.

Plate Boundaries: 

1. Divergent: When 2 oceanic plates pull away from each other, creating a new crust, this is known as SEAFLOOR SPREADING. This causes rising magma to expose and create ridges/volcanoes.

2. Convergent: When two plates crash towards each other, the result depends on the two types of plates:

• Oceanic and Continental: As ocean plates are more dense, they slip under the land plate, creating a trench (subduction zone)

• Oceanic and Oceanic: As they are equal in weight, one plate will rise, letting magma rise from the asthenosphere, creating volcanoes.

•  Continental and Continental: Collision causes the crust to rise, creating mountains.

3. Transform Boundaries: When 2 plates move sideways against each other, known as lateral slipping, the friction builds pressure, and when the pressure is released, earthquakes are created.

Lesson 2.4: Natural Disasters;

Types of Natural disasters: 

1. Earthquakes: Movement caused by tension built up within faults, volcanic activity, or a result of transform faults. Approx. 5000 earthquakes are recorded in Canada annually, with an urban earthquake being the most destructive. Most common areas to be affected are St. Lawrence and Ottawa Valleys, and parts of the 3 Northern territories.

2. Floods: Most common disasters in Canada, and occur when there is heavy or steady rain for several days. All rivers in Canada will experience flooding, and flooding can be a result of violent storms, ice jams, and other natural disasters.

3. Wildfires: Approx 8000 wildfires in Canada annually, and usually occur in the hottest months from May- September.45% of fires are mostly caused by lightning striking flammable materials, and the Western Cordillera and Forests are the most at risk.

4. Hurricanes: Storm with extremely high winds, with its Atlantic ocean season lasting from June-November. Most are small and cause minimal damage, but occasionally can cause severe damage, such as pushing water inland, causing flooding.

5. Landslides: Downward movement of rock/soil; triggered by a natural reaction of anmade movements. Large landslides happen every decade due to the build up of debris and material, with small ones happening 5000 annually, with the speed varying from slow to rapid. (BRITISH COLUMBIA MOST COMMON)

6. Tornadoes: Violent rotating column of wind, usually taking the shape of a funnel, it can range in width, from meters to kilometers, and winds reaching 500 kph. Commonly occur in Quebec, British Columbia, and New Brunswick.

7. Winter Storms: Can be sudden and last for days, bring heavy snowfall,low temperature, strong winds. Most common in Canada are blizzards and Ice storms, reaching 40kph, where a blizzard is classified if it lasts longer than 3 hours. Ice storms are caused by freezing rain that turns to ice when it hits the ground. Can coat electrical wires and trees with heavy layers of ice, causing them to fall and break.

Lesson 2.5:Landform Regions;

All Landform Regions: 

• Western Cordillera: High mountains (Rockies), deep valleys

• Canadian Shield: Oldest rock, many lakes, thin soil, exposed bedrock

• Interior Plains: Flat land, grasslands, rich soil

• Great Lakes St. Lawrence Lowlands: Fertile soil, rolling hills, rivers and lakes

• Appalachian Mountains: Rounded hills, old mountains, forested

• Hudson Bay Lowlands: Flat, swampy, near sea level, permafrost

• Arctic Lands: Cold, dry, permafrost, tundra, low hills

Lesson 2.6-2.7 : The Rock Cycle, Weather, Erosion, Deposition;

Rock Cycle: A Continuous process where one type of rock transforms into another through various geological processes. These processes are:

Types of Weathering:

1. Physical Weathering: Hot weather causes rocks to expand while cold weather does the opposite, this freeze/thaw process leads to rocks cracking, where they break off.

2. Chemical Weathering: Rainwater falls on the surface of rocks, where the water reacts with the rocks minerals. This often causes the rock to break down and form a new substance such as clay and salts.

3. Biological Weathering: Rocks and structures are altered by living organisms such as trees, animals, and bacteria. Ex. Trees in search of water can grow out their roots through rocks, creating cracks which break it apart.

Ways Earthen Material Moves around the World:

1. Weathering: Fragments of soil, rock, and mud which break down other materials using wind, water, or ice.

2. Erosion: Geological process in which material from the earth is transported by natural forces, and they settle there.

3. Deposition: When sediments and particles are transported by wind, water, and ice and then settle in a new location, some common locations are:

• River Deltas

• Beaches

• Floodplains

• Sand Dunes

• Glacial moraines

• Lakes and ponds

• Ocean floors

Lesson 2.8: Glaciers;

What is a Glacier: A make up of fallen snow, which compresses into large masses of ice over an extended period of time.

Types of Glaciers:

1. Alpine Glaciers: form on the top of mountain sides and slowly move downwards, this process creates valleys. ( All Continents Except Australia)

2. Ice Sheets: A formage of a broad center and spread out in all directions, blanketing their surroundings in a thick sheet of ice. ( Largest are in Antarctica and Greenland)

Why are glaciers used to measure Climate Change: As glaciers are very sensitive to climate change and a change in temperature, scientists study when the temperature warms, and the quick retreat of glaciers. This uncovers the speed of climate change.

 How have Glaciers changed in recent years? The glaciers have been receding at the most rapid pace these coming years.

Lesson 2.9:Climate;

Factors Which Affect The Climate: 

1. Latitude – Areas near the equator are warmer than the poles.
   
   

2. Elevation (Altitude) – Higher places are cooler.
   
   

3. Ocean Currents – Warm or cold currents can heat or cool coastal areas.
   
   

4. Distance from Water – Water heats and cools slowly, so coastal areas have milder climates.
   
   

5. Wind and Air Masses – Move moisture and temperature from place to place.
   
   

6. Topography – Mountains can block air masses and affect rainfall (e.g., rain shadow effect).
   
   

Difference Between Weather and Climate:

What Causes Climate Change?

Greenhouse Gas Emissions (like CO₂, CH₄, N₂O) from:

• Burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas)
  
  

• Deforestation
  
  

• Industrial activities
  
  

Natural Causes (less significant today):

• Volcanic eruptions
  
  

• Solar cycles
  
  

• Earth’s orbital changes

Effects of Climate Change:

Rising global temperatures

Melting glaciers and ice caps

Sea level rise

More extreme weather (storms, droughts, floods)

Loss of biodiversity

Ocean acidification

Impact on agriculture, health, and water supply

How Can We Respond to Climate Change:

• Use renewable energy (solar, wind)
  
  

• Improve energy efficiency
  
  

• Reforest and protect green spaces
  
  

• Reduce, reuse, recycle
  
  

• Limit car and plane use
  
  

• Build flood barriers
  
  

• Improve water storage and farming techniques
  
  

• Design climate-resilient buildings
  
  

• Prepare for emergencies (like heat waves or wildfires)

Lesson 2.10: Human-Led Activities shaping the Earth;

Urbanization (Building Cities and Infrastructure)

Importance:

• Provides homes, jobs, transportation, and services
  
  

• Supports economic growth and development
  
  

Environmental Impact:

• Loss of natural habitats
  
  

• Air and water pollution
  
  

• Increased carbon emissions
  
  

How to Reduce Impact:

• Build eco-friendly, energy-efficient buildings
  
  

• Protect green spaces and plant trees
  
  

• Improve public transit to reduce car use
  
  

 2. Agriculture (Farming and Raising Livestock)

Importance:

• Produces food for billions of people
  
  

• Provides jobs and raw materials (cotton, wool, etc.)
  
  

Environmental Impact:

• Deforestation for farmland
  
  

• Use of pesticides and fertilizers pollutes soil and water
  
  

• Methane emissions from livestock
  
  

How to Reduce Impact:

• Use sustainable farming practices (crop rotation, organic methods)
  
  

• Reduce meat consumption
  
  

• Protect forests and wetlands
  
  

3. Resource Extraction (Mining, Logging, Oil Drilling)

Importance:

• Supplies materials for construction, electronics, energy, etc.
  
  

• Supports economies and job markets
  
  

Environmental Impact:

• Destroys ecosystems and landscapes
  
  

• Water and air pollution
  
  

• Contributes to climate change
  
  

How to Reduce Impact:

• Recycle metals and use alternatives
  
  

• Stricter environmental regulations and monitoring
  
  

• Replant forests after logging (reforestation)