History

Viceroy
The viceroy was the king's representative in Spanish territories (Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Central America, etc.).

• Functions:

1. Commander-in-chief of the army.
2. Supervised tax collection.
3. Developed the territory.
4. Administered industries.
5. Appointed governors and mayors (Alcaldes).
6. Ensured laws were obeyed and rebellions suppressed.

Local Government

Governed by Municipal Councils (Cabildos), which managed towns and rural areas under viceroys and governors.

Officials:

1. Regidores: Managed local defense, maintenance, and imposed taxes.
2. Alcaldes Mayores: Heads of local government.
3. Alcaldes Ordinarios: Managed towns and villages.
4. Corregidores: Checked the Cabildo's work and reported to the Audiencia.

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Key Features

• Cabildos were designed to promote justice but faced corruption and conflict.

• The Spanish colonial government lasted 300 years, but inefficiency weakened its effectiveness.

Administering the Caribbean Empire**

The Conciliar System of Government

• Spain used an absolute monarchy, where the king made laws and appointed officials.

• To manage the empire, the king relied on councils:

- Council of Castile: Central advisory council for domestic matters.
- Council of Finance: Managed expenditure and financial matters.
- Council of the Indies: Oversaw administration in the New World.

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The House of Castile

The ruling house in Spain, acting as the king’s main advisory body.

All colonial matters required approval from the Council of Castile.

The Council of Finance managed New World financial affairs, working through the Council of the Indies.

Limitations:

Slow communication delayed decisions.
The king preferred to personally oversee important matters.

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The Council of the Indies (Consejo Real y Supremo de las Indias)

• Established by King Ferdinand in 1511, reorganized in 1524.

• Comprised experts nominated by the crown.

• Held supreme authority over the colonies, managing:

• Civil, military, commercial, and religious matters.

• Prepared laws, assessed colonial officials, and acted as the highest legal body.

• Controlled trade through the Casa de Contratación (established in 1503).

Spanish Colonial Administration**

• Ovando: First effective Spanish governor in the Caribbean (returned to Spain in 1509). Replaced by governors and magistrates who reported to higher authorities.

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Methods of Administration
1. Residencia: Investigation of a governor’s term in office by his successor.
2. Vista: Similar to Residencia but conducted during the governor’s term. The Visitador (investigator) outranked the governor and reported directly to the crown.

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The Audiencia

• Purpose: The highest court and key check on officials.

• Key Features:

- Established in 1511 at Santo Domingo.
- Heard appeals and oversaw colonial officials, including the governor and viceroy.
- Could recall governors for misconduct.
- Comprised 3-15 members, including:
- Oidores: Judges who could not marry or own land in the colonies.
- Fiscal (Prosecutor): Handled public interests.
- Administered smaller parts of a viceroy’s territory and checked corruption by colonial officers.

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2. Illegal Trading

• Spain's strict trade protection caused shortages in the colonies.

• Settlers relied on illegal trade with English and Dutch merchants for goods like wine, oil, and textiles.

• By the late 17th century, Dutch traders became the most active in this illegal trade.

3. Settlement

• French and English established settlements in the Caribbean to challenge Spanish dominance.

• By 1763, Spain's control in the Americas had significantly weakened.

Assault on Spain’s Empire
By the late 16th century, Spain was the dominant power in the Americas, but its control faced threats from French, Dutch, and English rivals seeking wealth and territory.

**How did Spain protect her empire in the Americas?**
Spain implemented measures to protect her American empire:
1. House of Trade: Controlled exploration, colonization, taxes, licensing, and trade information.
2. Fortification of towns: Reduced attacks by European rivals.
3. Convoy system: Merchant ships escorted by warships to deter privateers.
4. Monopoly port system: Restricted trade to authorized ports only.
5. Guarda Costa: Coast guards patrolling against smugglers and pirates.
6. Asiento: Allowed other countries to sell slaves to Spanish colonies.

**How was Spain’s monopoly broken?**
Despite Spain’s measures, European rivals challenged their dominance:

• Privateering: Governments issued "Letters of Marque" allowing privateers to attack and plunder Spanish ships. Buccaneers (unlicensed pirates) were also effective in disrupting Spain’s stronghold.

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Dutch Settlements in the Caribbean - 17th Century
The Dutch established a presence in the Caribbean in the 17th century, often amidst competition with other European powers.
* Aruba, Bonaire, Curacao: The Dutch took control of these islands from the Spanish and developed a strong relationship with the local Arawak. Curacao became a major trade center.
* Saba: Settlers from St. Eustatius colonized Saba, which was under the governance of Pieter Stuyvesant.
* St. Eustatius: Colonized by the Dutch in 1632, it became a significant trading hub, serving as a base to expand into other Leeward Islands. Pieter Stuyvesant was also governor here.
* Tortola: Governed by the Dutch from 1638 to 1666, it was eventually captured by the English.
* St. Martin: Initially settled by both the Dutch and French, they eventually agreed to divide the island in 1648. The Dutch side was important for salt production and later faced English competition.
* St. Dominique: Briefly held by the Dutch, they were expelled by the Spanish and English settlers.
* St. Vincent and Tortola: England claimed St. Vincent in 1627, facing resistance from the Caribs. Tortola was initially claimed by the English in 1627 but later controlled by the Dutch before the English gained permanent control.

Maintaining Spanish Monopoly
Spain aimed to maintain its monopoly in the Americas through several measures in the 16th-18th centuries:
* House of Trade ("Casa de Contratación"): This government agency controlled all aspects of Spanish exploration, colonization, and trade, including collecting taxes, issuing licenses, regulating shipping, and maintaining secret information.
* Guarda Costa: Coastguard patrols were established to combat smugglers and other maritime threats.
* Convoy System: Merchant ships traveled with armed escorts to reduce attacks by privateers and buccaneers.
* Monopoly Port System: Only authorized Spanish ports could conduct trade with the settlements.
* Settlement Permission: The Spanish government's permission was required for settlement.
* Fortification: Important towns were fortified.
Measures to break Spanish monopoly
Other European nations employed several strategies to challenge Spain's dominance:
* Privateering: Governments issued "Letters of Marque" authorizing private individuals to attack and plunder enemy ships.

2. Illegal trading: Spain's protectionist trade policies led to widespread illegal trade. Spanish settlers often waited for foreign ships to obtain goods unavailable through the restricted Spanish fleet. The English and Dutch were major participants in this illicit trade, supplying goods like wine, oil, tools, and textiles. By the late 17th century, it was a significant challenge to Spanish control.
3. Settlement: The French and English established settlements in the Caribbean as a way to undermine Spanish dominance. These settlements, considered insignificant by the Spanish initially, grew and contributed to the decline of Spanish power in the Americas. By 1763, Spain's dominant position had weakened.

French challenge to Spanish Monopoly," and "Dutch aid in breaking Spain's Monopoly" into a more concise form:
English Privateers
English privateers, like Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake, engaged in illegal trade and attacks on Spanish interests. Hawkins initially traded slaves with Spanish colonies. Drake famously raided Spanish towns and ships, accumulating significant wealth and disrupting Spanish control.
French challenge to Spanish Monopoly
French adventurers, including Jean Ango, Jean Fleury, and François Le Clerc (Peg-Leg), actively challenged Spain's dominance. They attacked Spanish ships, including treasure fleets, and raided Spanish settlements in the Caribbean and Central America, motivated by both profit and religious differences (Protestant vs. Catholic Spain).
Dutch aid in breaking Spain's Monopoly
The Dutch significantly weakened Spain's monopoly in the Caribbean. They captured the Portuguese port of Elmina in West Africa, gaining control of the slave trade. They then illegally supplied slaves to Spanish colonies and traded other goods, including salt, directly with the Spanish colonists.