AP world history

1250-1400

1. Major Civilizations in Afro-Eurasia

A. East Asia — SONG DYNASTY (China)

• Super advanced: paper, gunpowder, printing, compass.

• Had a bureaucracy (government jobs based on merit).

• Used the civil service exam (based on Confucianism).

• Confucianism dominated society:

• Obey your parents, know your role, keep the peace.

• Practiced Neo-Confucianism (Confucian + Daoism + Buddhism).

Economy:

• Huge in trade, especially on the Silk Roads.

• Massive cities, agriculture, and proto-industrialization.

Women:

• Lower status. Foot binding was popular.

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B. Dar al-Islam — Islamic World

• “Dar al-Islam” = everywhere Islam spread.

• Caliphates = Islamic empires.

• Abbasid Caliphate (Middle East) was big early on, but by 1200 it was breaking down.

• Replaced by Seljuk Turks and Mamluk Sultanate (Egypt).

• United by Arabic language and Islam.

Golden Age of Islam:

• Math, science, medicine, philosophy (they preserved ancient Greek texts!)

• Universities like House of Wisdom in Baghdad.

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C. South & Southeast Asia

• India: Had Hinduism and Islam (with tension).

• The Delhi Sultanate ruled as a Muslim empire over a mostly Hindu population.

• Bhakti Movement (Hindu reform, personal devotion).

• Sufism (mystical Islam, helped spread it peacefully).

• In Southeast Asia, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism all spread through trade.

• Powerful kingdoms: Srivijaya (Buddhist), Majapahit (Hindu), Khmer Empire (Buddhist).

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2. Africa

• Great Zimbabwe: Massive stone city, wealth from gold trade.

• Ethiopia: Christian kingdom with rock churches.

• West Africa: Mali Empire = major player!

• Wealth from gold and salt trade.

• Famous king: Mansa Musa — RICHEST MAN EVER. He flexed on his Hajj to Mecca.

Islam spread in Africa mostly through trade routes, not conquest.

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3. Europe — Feudalism & Christianity

• Decentralized: Kings, lords, knights, peasants.

• Manorialism: People worked on manors; self-sufficient.

• Roman Catholic Church = most powerful institution.

• Universities & Gothic cathedrals start to show up.

• After 1200s, kings began centralizing power (France, England, Spain rise).

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4. The Americas

• Maya (Yucatán): advanced writing, astronomy, pyramids.

• Aztecs (Mexico): human sacrifice, floating gardens (chinampas), tribute empire.

• Inca (Peru): no writing, but used quipus (knot system), built roads, terrace farming.

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5. Belief Systems That Unified Societies

China:

Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism

Dar Al Islam:

Islam (Sunni & Shia)

India:

Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism

Europe:

Christianity (Roman Catholic)

Africa:

Islam, Christianity, Animism

Americas:

Polytheistic, nature gods, ancestor worship

6. Technology & Innovation

• China: Paper, gunpowder, printing, magnetic compass.

• Islamic World: Algebra, astronomy, hospitals.

• Incas: Road systems in the Andes (with no wheels!).

• Aztecs: Engineering feats like floating gardens.

1. The Silk Roads (China to Europe)

What was traded:

• Luxury goods: silk, porcelain, spices, precious stones.

• From China: silk, tea, gunpowder, paper.

• From Europe & Central Asia: horses, saddles, glassware, wool.

How it worked:

• Relay trade: goods moved in pieces, not by one person.

• Merchants stopped at oases like Samarkand and Kashgar.

• Used caravanserais (roadside inns for merchants/camels).

• Governments helped by standardizing money and making safe routes.

Cultural effects:

• Buddhism spread into China, Korea, Japan.

• Art + architecture influenced by many cultures.

Disease:

• The Black Death (plague) traveled these roads in the 14th century and WRECKED populations (especially in Europe).

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2. The Mongol Empire: Genghis Energy

• Genghis Khan united Mongol tribes and built the largest land empire EVER.

• They were violent conquerors, but also made things stable after conquest.

What they did:

• Reopened and protected the Silk Roads.

• Created Pax Mongolica (“Mongol Peace”): safe trade, postal systems, and communication across Eurasia.

• Promoted tolerance of religions (Buddhism, Islam, Christianity).

• Adapted to local cultures instead of erasing them.

Mongol khanates:

• Yuan Dynasty (China)

• Golden Horde (Russia)

• Ilkhanate (Middle East)

• Chagatai (Central Asia)

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3. Indian Ocean Trade (Africa to SE Asia to China)

What was traded:

• Everyday goods + luxury:

• Spices, cotton, ivory, gold, timber, incense.

• Much bigger and heavier trade than the Silk Roads.

Key players:

• Swahili city-states (East Africa): exported gold, ivory, slaves.

• India: major middleman and producer of cotton, spices.

• China: exported silk, porcelain.

• Islamic merchants dominated much of the trade.

How it worked:

• Depended on monsoon winds:

• Sailors timed trips with the wind cycles.

• Used advanced boats like dhows and junks.

• Spread Islam (peacefully) across Africa and SE Asia.

Diasporic communities:

• Merchants often stayed in port cities and married locals.

• Ex: Muslim merchants in India or Chinese merchants in SE Asia.

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4. Trans-Saharan Trade Routes (North Africa to West Africa)

What was traded:

• Gold for salt (yes really — salt was THAT valuable).

• Also: slaves, ivory, cloth, books.

How it worked:

• Crossed the Sahara Desert using camel caravans.

• Camel saddles were a huge innovation.

Key cities:

• Timbuktu (Mali) = center of trade, culture, and Islamic learning.

• Big empires involved: Ghana, Mali, and Songhai.

Religion:

• Islam spread into West Africa.

• Kings like Mansa Musa took hajj to Mecca and flexed hard.

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5. Cultural Diffusion & Syncretism

Religion spread like wildfire:

• Islam → across Africa, South Asia, SE Asia.

• Buddhism → from India to East Asia.

• Christianity → spread north and east in Europe.

Art & architecture blended:

• Mosques with African, Indian, Persian styles.

• Buddhist art adapted to Chinese culture.

Technology diffused:

• Paper & printing from China → Europe.

• Astrolabe & compass → from Islamic world & China → Europe.

• Gunpowder → spread from China, changed warfare forever.

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6. Travelers Who Spilled the Tea

These people wrote about their journeys and gave us ✨vibes✨ from the past:

• Marco Polo (Venice to China):

• Worked under Kublai Khan.

• Wrote about Chinese wealth and tech.

• Ibn Battuta (Muslim scholar):

• Traveled the entire Islamic world — N. Africa, India, SE Asia.

• Judged places based on how Islamic they were.

• Margery Kempe (Christian woman from England):

• Wrote the first autobiography in English.

• Described her pilgrimages and religious visions.

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7. Big Changes from All This Trade

Economies

More wealth, specialization, and markets.

Cultures

Shared religions, languages, foods, and ideas.

Technology

Spread of farming tech, ship designs, weapons.

Disease

BLACK DEATH killed 1/3 of Europe.

Cities

Major trade cities blew up in size and influence.

1450-1700

1. Gunpowder Empires: The Power Trio

A. Ottoman Empire (Sunni Islam, Turkey & SE Europe)

• SUPER strong military, used gunpowder (cannons, muskets).

• Took over Constantinople in 1453 → renamed it Istanbul.

• Ruler = Sultan (political + religious leader).

• Devshirme system: Took Christian boys, converted them, trained them to be:

• Janissaries (elite soldiers)

• Gov’t workers

Religion: Sunni Islam, but tolerated Christians & Jews (millet system).

Architecture: Massive mosques like the Süleymaniye Mosque.

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B. Safavid Empire (Shia Islam, Persia/Iran)

• Rivals to the Ottomans (Sunni vs. Shia beef).

• Unified Persia with Shi’a Islam as state religion.

• More religiously strict than Ottomans.

• Known for stunning art, carpets, and beautiful blue tilework.

• Frequent wars with the Ottomans (they hated each other).

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C. Mughal Empire (India)

• Muslim rulers over a majority Hindu population.

• Akbar the Great: super chill, religiously tolerant, blended cultures.

• Built the Taj Mahal (under Shah Jahan).

• Allowed Hindus in government, got rid of the jizya (tax on non-Muslims).

Later rulers like Aurangzeb reversed Akbar’s tolerance, pushed strict Islam = tension + rebellion.

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2. China — Ming to Qing Dynasty

Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)

• Pushed out the Mongols.

• Restored Confucianism, civil service exams, and Chinese traditions.

• HUGE naval exploration with Zheng He’s treasure fleets (early 1400s).

• Then… they isolated again (because Confucians were like “trade = bad”).

Qing Dynasty (1644–1912)

• Came from Manchuria (northeast of China).

• Maintained Confucian systems.

• Ethnic tension: Manchu rulers ruled over Han Chinese majority.

• Expanded China’s territory like CRAZY (Xinjiang, Tibet, etc.).

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3. Russia — Expanding East

• Kicked out the Mongols (under Ivan the Great).

• Ivan the Terrible expanded eastward with brutal force.

• Peter the Great: modernized Russia, built St. Petersburg, forced Western culture (cut off beards!).

• Serfdom = basically slavery, lasted way longer in Russia.

Theme: Russia = land empire meets European vibes meets Asian influences.

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4. Japan — Tokugawa Shogunate (1600–1868)

• Centralized feudalism: Shogun (military dictator) held real power, not the emperor.

• Used samurai to control daimyos (nobles).

• Closed Japan off from the world (sakoku) — no foreigners allowed except Dutch at one port.

• Peaceful, stable, traditional.

• Confucian influence, strict social hierarchy.

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5. How Did These Empires Gain & Maintain Power?

Gunpowder

Ottomans, Mughals, Safavids

Bureaucracies

Ming/Qing exams, Ottoman devshirme

Military elites

Janissaries, Samurai

Tax collection systems

Mughal zamindars, Ottoman tax farmers

Religion to legitimize rule

Divine right, Shi’a Islam in Safavid Empire

Monumental architecture

Taj Mahal, Suleymaniye Mosque, Forbidden City

6. Religion: Friend & Foe

• Empires used religion to legitimize rule:

• Divine right in Europe

• Shi’a Islam in Safavid Empire

• Confucianism in China

• BUT religion also caused tension:

• Sunni vs. Shia (Ottomans vs. Safavids)

• Muslim rulers vs. Hindu subjects (Mughals)

• Christian splits in Europe → Protestant Reformation

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7. Art & Architecture = Flexing Power

Empire

Flex Piece

Mughals

Taj Mahal

Ottomans

Mosques of Istanbul

Safavids

Isfahan city

China

Forbidden City

Russia

St. Basil’s Cathedral

1. Why Now? Tech + Motives

Tech That Made It Possible:

• Caravel: Small, fast ship (used by Portuguese).

• Lateen sail: Triangle sail = better steering.

• Astrolabe + compass: Helped sailors know where they were.

• Cartography (mapmaking): Better than ever.

Why They Explored:

• Gold, God, Glory:

• Wanted wealth (especially spices & silver).

• Wanted to spread Christianity.

• Wanted fame and power.

• Mercantilism: Idea that power = wealth. Countries wanted to control trade and stack gold.

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2. Major Voyages & European Exploration

Portugal:

• First ones out!

• Went down the African coast, made it around to India.

• Prince Henry the Navigator funded exploration.

• Vasco da Gama reached India.

• Built trading post empire along coasts (Africa, India, SE Asia, Brazil).

Spain:

• Sent Columbus west → hit the Americas.

• Conquistadors like Cortés & Pizarro conquered the Aztec and Inca.

• Claimed most of the Americas.

• Made viceroyalties (colonial govs), encomienda system (forced Native labor), and missions to convert Natives.

France, England, Netherlands:

• Explored North America and parts of the Caribbean.

• Focused more on colonizing later (especially England in the 1600s).

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3. Columbian Exchange (LIFE-CHANGER)

A MASSIVE exchange of plants, animals, people, diseases, and ideas between the Old World (Europe, Asia, Africa) and the New World (Americas).

Diseases (smallpox, measles)

90% of Native Americans DIED

Horses, pigs, cattle

Revolutionized Native societies

Sugar, wheat, rice

Plantations began

Africans (slaves)

Brought via slave trade

Corn, potatoes

Population boom in Europe

Tomatoes, cacao, tobacco

Changed European diets & economy

Silver & gold

Made Spain RICH (and inflated prices)

4. Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade (SO important)

• Natives died → Europeans turned to Africa for labor.

• Middle Passage: Brutal journey for enslaved Africans across Atlantic.

• Chattel slavery = people treated as property.

• Millions taken to Brazil, the Caribbean, and North America.

Effects:

• Africa: lost millions of people, destabilized societies.

• Americas: grew economies, especially sugar + cotton.

• Created racial hierarchies in colonies (especially Latin America).

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5. New Economic Systems

Mercantilism:

• Gov controls trade.

• Colonies exist to benefit the mother country.

• Goal = export more than you import.

Joint-Stock Companies:

• Like early corporations — people invest money, share profit/loss.

• Ex: British East India Company, Dutch VOC.

• Funded voyages, established trade posts, took over regions.

Encomienda

Spanish colonies

Natives forced to work for Spanish settlers.

Hacienda

Spanish colonies

Large estates; natives worked land.

Indentured servitude

English colonies

Poor Europeans worked for a few years to pay off debt.

African slavery

Everywhere

Permanent, inherited, race-based slavery.

7. Cultural Changes & Resistance

• Syncretism: cultures blended (African + Christianity = Voodoo, Santería).

• Natives adopted some European tech but also fought back.

• Maroon societies: Escaped slaves who formed their own communities.

• Pueblo Revolt (1680): Natives in SW US temporarily kicked out Spanish.

• In Africa: kingdoms like Asante & Kongo gained power by selling slaves.

8. Major Global Impact

Europe

Got rich, dominated trade, global power boost.

Americas

Colonized, devastated by disease, new societies.

Africa

Population loss, new slave economies, internal war.

Asia

Some parts stayed isolated (like Japan), others traded with Europe (like India).

1750-1900:

1. The Enlightenment:

• What is it?

A philosophical movement that spread across Europe in the 18th century. Enlightenment thinkers (philosophes) advocated for reason, individual rights, liberty, and the questioning of traditional authority (mainly monarchies and the church).

• Key Philosophers:

• John Locke: Advocated for natural rights (life, liberty, and property) and the idea that government should be based on the consent of the governed. His ideas influenced the American and French revolutions.

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Believed in the social contract, where people give up some of their freedoms in exchange for protection and the common good.

• Voltaire: Promoted freedom of speech and religion.

• Montesquieu: Argued for separation of powers in government (executive, legislative, judicial).

• Impact: The Enlightenment inspired people to challenge existing governments and social hierarchies. This laid the foundation for many political revolutions.

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2. The American Revolution (1776):

• Causes: The American colonists were unhappy with British rule, especially because of high taxes (e.g., Tea Act, Stamp Act) and lack of representation in Parliament (“No taxation without representation!”).

• Key Events:

• Declaration of Independence (1776): Written by Thomas Jefferson, it declared the colonies’ independence from Britain and was heavily influenced by Enlightenment ideas (Locke’s theories about rights).

• The War: The American colonies, with help from France, defeated Britain and secured independence.

• Key Outcome:

• Creation of the U.S. Constitution (1787): Set up a government based on Enlightenment principles of individual rights and limited government power. The Bill of Rights was added in 1791 to protect freedoms like speech, religion, and assembly.

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3. The French Revolution (1789–1799):

• Causes: France’s financial crisis, inequality between the estates (the clergy, nobility, and common people), and the Enlightenment ideas of equality and liberty.

• Key Events:

• Tennis Court Oath (1789): The Third Estate (commoners) swore to create a new constitution after being locked out of the Estates-General.

• Storming of the Bastille (1789): People in Paris attacked the Bastille prison, symbolizing the revolt against royal authority.

• Reign of Terror (1793-1794): Led by Robespierre and the Jacobins, this was a period of extreme violence where thousands were executed (including King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette).

• Key Outcomes:

• End of the Monarchy: France became a republic.

• Napoleon Bonaparte: After the revolution, Napoleon took power and declared himself emperor. While he was a military leader, he spread some revolutionary ideas, like legal equality (Napoleonic Code).

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4. The Haitian Revolution (1791–1804):

• Why it’s important: It was the first successful slave revolt that resulted in an independent nation (Haiti) and the abolition of slavery.

• Causes: Slaves in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) were inspired by the French Revolution’s ideals of liberty and equality. Also, brutal working conditions on sugar plantations fueled the revolt.

• Key Events:

• Toussaint L’Ouverture: A former slave who led the Haitian army to victory against both French and British forces.

• 1804: Haiti declared its independence and became the first nation to abolish slavery and create a republic led by former slaves.

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5. The Latin American Revolutions (1810–1825):

• Why they’re important: These revolutions were inspired by the American and French Revolutions and led to the independence of several Latin American nations from Spanish and Portuguese colonial rule.

• Key Events:

• Mexico: The Mexican Revolution began in 1810 with Miguel Hidalgo’s “Grito de Dolores” and ended in 1821 with the independence of Mexico.

• South America: Leaders like Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín led revolts across South America, eventually freeing countries like Venezuela, Colombia, Argentina, and Peru from Spanish control.

• Outcome: By 1825, most of Latin America had gained independence, though political instability remained in many countries.

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6. Industrial Revolution (1760–1840):

• What is it?: A period of rapid industrial growth that began in Britain and spread to other parts of the world. It radically changed society by introducing factory-based production, mechanization, and new technologies.

• Key Inventions:

• Steam Engine (James Watt): Enabled factories to be built anywhere, not just near water sources.

• Textile Machines: The spinning jenny and power loom revolutionized the textile industry.

• Railroads and Steamships: Transformed transportation and trade.

• Social Impact:

• Urbanization: People moved to cities to work in factories, leading to overcrowded, unsanitary conditions.

• Labor Unions: Workers formed unions to fight for better wages and working conditions.

• Economic Impact:

• Capitalism: The rise of factory owners and entrepreneurs. Wealth became concentrated in the hands of industrialists.

• Global Trade: Increased production led to a need for raw materials and markets, fueling European imperialism.

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7. Effects of the Industrial Revolution on Politics & Society:

• Class Structure: The middle class grew, but the working class faced harsh conditions.

• New Ideologies:

• Liberalism: Advocated for limited government, individual rights, and free markets. Popular among the middle class.

• Socialism: Argued that wealth should be distributed more equally and that the government should play a role in managing the economy.

• Marxism/Communism: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels published “The Communist Manifesto” (1848), calling for a worker revolution against the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) to establish a classless society.

1. Economic Changes from Industrialization:

• Capitalism:

• Industrialization led to the rise of capitalism — an economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and the goal of making profits.

• The bourgeoisie (owners of the factories and businesses) profited from the labor of the proletariat (working class), leading to class tensions.

• Factory System:

• Before industrialization, people worked from home or in small workshops. With the factory system, large factories replaced small shops, and workers had to move to urban areas to work.

• This system led to mass production of goods, which made them cheaper and more available but also exploited workers.

• Consumerism:

• As mass production increased, the supply of goods grew, leading to a rise in consumerism. People began to buy more goods, creating a new middle class that could afford to buy products previously out of reach.

• Banking and Finance:

• Industrialization also led to the growth of banking systems. Banks provided loans to factory owners and entrepreneurs to build factories, infrastructure, and machines, further fueling industrial growth.

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2. Social Changes:

• Urbanization:

• Urbanization refers to the movement of people from rural areas to cities. Industrialization created job opportunities in factories, which led to people flocking to cities for work.

• This led to overcrowding, poor living conditions, and often unsanitary conditions in rapidly growing industrial cities.

• Public health became a major issue, and many cities faced the spread of diseases due to the poor conditions.

• Changes in Social Structure:

• The Middle Class: The rise of factories and businesses led to the growth of the middle class (entrepreneurs, factory owners, and professionals). They enjoyed better living conditions and greater economic power.

• The Working Class: The working class (factory workers, miners, etc.) faced terrible working conditions, low wages, and long hours. Child labor was common, and many people lived in poverty.

• Women and Children in the Workforce:

• Women and children were employed in factories because they could be paid lower wages. Women worked in textile mills, while children worked in mines and factories.

• The work was grueling and dangerous, leading to reforms later on, such as the Factory Acts in Britain, which limited child labor and improved working conditions for women and children.

• Labor Unions:

• As a response to harsh working conditions, labor unions began to form. These unions fought for better wages, shorter working hours, and improved working conditions.

• Eventually, the labor movement led to reforms like the minimum wage, child labor laws, and workplace safety regulations.

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3. Technological and Scientific Advances:

• Steam Engine:

• The steam engine, perfected by James Watt, was one of the most important technological advancements of the Industrial Revolution. It powered factories, trains, and ships, revolutionizing transportation and industry.

• Railroads and Steamships:

• Railroads: Railroads became essential for transporting goods and people. They helped expand markets and fueled the growth of other industries like coal and steel.

• Steamships: Steamships also revolutionized transportation, allowing for faster and more reliable travel across oceans, which helped with global trade.

• New Industries:

• Textiles: The textile industry, with innovations like the spinning jenny and power loom, was one of the first to industrialize. This led to a boom in cotton production, especially in places like Britain and the southern U.S.

• Steel: The introduction of Bessemer steel (a cheaper method to produce steel) allowed for faster, larger construction of infrastructure like railways, buildings, and ships.

• Electricity: The discovery and development of electricity and its uses in factories, street lighting, and homes was another major technological advancement that transformed society.

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4. Imperialism and Industrialization:

• Why Imperialism?:

• European powers needed raw materials (like cotton, rubber, and oil) to fuel their factories. Colonies provided cheap resources and markets for the goods produced by industrialized nations.

• Industrialization created a need for new markets to sell the mass-produced goods and raw materials for the factories.

• Thus, imperialism became closely tied to industrialization, as European countries expanded their empires in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific.

• Scramble for Africa:

• European powers colonized nearly all of Africa in a period known as the Scramble for Africa (1881-1914). They sought raw materials (rubber, gold, diamonds, etc.) to feed their growing industries.

• Colonization often led to the exploitation and oppression of native populations, as European powers set up plantations and mines to extract resources.

• Colonial Economies:

• Colonial economies were often focused on exporting raw materials to the imperial powers and were structured to benefit the colonizers, not the local populations.

• In many cases, local economies were reorganized to focus on a few cash crops or minerals, disrupting traditional economies.

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5. Socialism and Responses to Industrialization:

• Socialism:

• Socialism is an economic and political system that advocates for the means of production (factories, land, resources) to be owned and regulated by the community or government.

• Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels wrote the Communist Manifesto (1848), arguing that industrial capitalism would eventually lead to class struggle, and the working class (proletariat) would overthrow the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) and establish a classless society.

• Utopian Socialists:

• Earlier forms of socialism, like those proposed by Robert Owen and Charles Fourier, called for ideal societies where workers lived in harmony and shared resources. However, their ideas weren’t as revolutionary as Marx’s.

• Labor Reforms:

• In response to growing discontent and the rise of labor unions, many countries passed labor laws. For example, the Factory Acts in Britain began limiting child labor and improving working conditions in factories.

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6. Global Spread of Industrialization:

• Industrialization outside of Europe:

• While Europe and the U.S. were the main industrial powers, industrialization spread to other parts of the world.

• Japan was one of the first non-Western nations to industrialize. The Meiji Restoration (1868) modernized Japan’s economy and military, allowing it to become a global power.

• Russia and China began their own industrial efforts in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, though their economies were not as industrialized as those of the Western powers.

1900- present:

1. Causes of World War I (1914–1918)

The acronym MAIN helps you remember:

• M - Militarism: Countries like Germany and Britain were building up massive armies and navies. Everyone was flexing.

• A - Alliances: Countries formed military alliances for protection, which turned a small conflict into a world war.

• Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy (but Italy later switched).

• Triple Entente: France, Russia, Britain.

• I - Imperialism: European powers competed for colonies in Africa and Asia, which created global tension.

• N - Nationalism: People wanted independence (especially in the Balkans). National pride was huge.

Spark of WWI:

• The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (Austria-Hungary) by a Serbian nationalist in 1914. Austria declared war on Serbia → alliances kicked in → WORLD WAR.

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2. WWI Warfare and Effects

• Trench warfare: Miserable, muddy, and deadly. Created a brutal stalemate.

• New weapons: Machine guns, poison gas, tanks, submarines.

• Total war: Whole societies were mobilized—governments controlled resources, women joined the workforce, colonies were pulled into the war.

• Global: Troops from colonies in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia fought for their imperial rulers.

End of WWI:

• 1918: Germany surrendered.

• Treaty of Versailles (1919):

• Germany had to accept blame for the war.

• Pay reparations, reduce its military, and lose colonies.

• Created resentment → led to WWII.

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3. Russian Revolution (1917)

• Causes: Harsh working conditions, military losses in WWI, food shortages, and resentment of the tsar.

• Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks (communists) overthrew the government.

• Russia left WWI and became the Soviet Union (USSR), the world’s first communist country.

• Civil War: Red Army (Bolsheviks) vs. White Army (anti-communists) → Red Army won.

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4. Interwar Period (1919–1939)

Big Themes:

• Economic depression: After WWI, Europe was broke. Then came the Great Depression (1929), which started in the U.S. but spread globally.

• Factories shut down, banks failed, unemployment soared.

• Rise of authoritarian regimes:

• Fascism rose in Italy (Mussolini) and Germany (Hitler).

• Nazism in Germany = extreme nationalism + racism + totalitarian rule.

• Japan: Became more militaristic and imperialist (invaded Manchuria in 1931 and China in 1937).

Key Features of Fascism:

• Dictatorship

• Extreme nationalism

• No tolerance for opposition

• Focus on military

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5. Causes of World War II (1939–1945)

• Treaty of Versailles: Germany was humiliated and angry.

• Hitler’s Aggression: Rebuilt military, took over Austria and Czechoslovakia.

• Appeasement: Britain and France let Hitler expand at first to avoid war.

• Invasion of Poland (1939): Germany invaded Poland → Britain and France declared war = WWII began.

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6. World War II Events

• Allied Powers: Britain, USSR (after 1941), U.S. (after Pearl Harbor), France.

• Axis Powers: Germany, Italy, Japan.

Major Turning Points:

• Battle of Britain (1940): Britain fought off German air attacks.

• Operation Barbarossa (1941): Germany invaded the Soviet Union—bad idea.

• Pearl Harbor (Dec 7, 1941): Japan attacked U.S. → U.S. entered the war.

• D-Day (1944): Allied invasion of France—major step toward defeating Germany.

• Hiroshima & Nagasaki (1945): U.S. dropped atomic bombs → Japan surrendered.

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7. The Holocaust

• Hitler’s “Final Solution” was the systematic genocide of 6 million Jews, plus millions of others (Roma, disabled, etc.).

• One of the worst atrocities in human history. It led to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights after the war.

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8. Effects of WWII

• United Nations (UN) was formed in 1945 to maintain peace.

• Germany and Japan were occupied and rebuilt (especially Japan, which became a democracy).

• Cold War begins: U.S. (capitalist) vs. USSR (communist).

• Decolonization starts: colonies in Africa and Asia begin pushing for independence.

1. The Cold War Begins (1947–1991)

Definition:

A global political and ideological struggle between the United States and the Soviet Union, but it never turned into direct war between the two. Instead, they fought proxy wars, had nuclear standoffs, and competed globally.

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2. Ideologies: Capitalism vs. Communism

• United States (Capitalism):

• Free markets, democracy, individual freedoms.

• Soviet Union (Communism):

• Government control of economy, one-party state, equality over freedom.

Each side wanted to spread their system globally → lots of tension.

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3. Cold War Alliances

• NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization):

• U.S. + Western Europe = military alliance against communism.

• Warsaw Pact:

• Soviet Union + Eastern Europe = alliance to defend communism.

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4. Proxy Wars (Fighting through other countries)

Korean War (1950–1953)

• North Korea (communist, backed by USSR & China) vs. South Korea (capitalist, backed by U.S.)

• Ends in a stalemate; Korea is still divided today.

Vietnam War (1955–1975)

• North Vietnam (communist) vs. South Vietnam (U.S.-backed)

• U.S. loses; Vietnam becomes fully communist.

Afghanistan War (1979–1989)

• USSR invades Afghanistan to support communism → U.S. supports Afghan rebels (the Mujahideen).

• USSR eventually withdraws → humiliating loss.

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5. Nuclear Arms Race & Space Race

• Nuclear Arms Race:

• U.S. and USSR both build huge nuclear arsenals.

• MAD (Mutually Assured Destruction) = If one side attacks, both get destroyed. So no one dares to go nuclear.

• Cuban Missile Crisis (1962):

• USSR put missiles in Cuba → U.S. freaked out.

• Closest the world got to nuclear war.

• Ended with USSR backing down, but it was TENSE.

• Space Race:

• USSR launched Sputnik (first satellite).

• U.S. landed first man on the moon in 1969.

• Both sides used space tech to flex their power.

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6. Decolonization Movements (Post-WWII)

After WWII, empires were broke and colonized people were DONE being controlled. So tons of countries in Africa and Asia won independence.

India (1947):

• Led by Mohandas Gandhi using nonviolent resistance.

• India split into:

• India (Hindu majority)

• Pakistan (Muslim majority)

• Sparked lots of conflict and migration.

Africa:

• Peaceful in some places (like Ghana).

• Violent in others (like Algeria vs. France).

• Leaders: Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana), Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya), Nelson Mandela (South Africa—ended apartheid later).

Middle East:

• Israel created in 1948 → tensions with Arab nations ever since.

• Palestine divided → major conflict still ongoing.

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7. New Power Structures & Movements

Non-Aligned Movement:

• Some countries (like India, Egypt, Yugoslavia) chose not to take sides in the Cold War.

• Wanted to stay independent of U.S./USSR influence.

Global South:

• Newly independent nations were mostly poor, unindustrialized.

• Struggled with poverty, corruption, war, and Cold War pressures.

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8. Resistance to Power Structures

• Civil Rights Movement (U.S.): Black Americans fought segregation (MLK, Rosa Parks).

• Feminist Movements: Women pushed for equality around the world.

• Anti-Apartheid in South Africa: Fought racist system of segregation. Nelson Mandela became symbol of resistance.

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9. Collapse of the Soviet Union (1991)

Reasons why USSR collapsed:

• Economy was weak.

• Couldn’t keep up with U.S. militarily.

• Reforms by Gorbachev:

• Glasnost = openness.

• Perestroika = restructuring.

• People in Eastern Europe rebelled and left the USSR.

• 1991: Soviet Union officially dissolved → Cold War ended.

1. What Even Is Globalization?

Globalization = The process of the world becoming more interconnected through trade, tech, migration, culture, and communication.

Started in earlier units (Silk Roads, Columbian Exchange), but now it’s on steroids because of technology and global capitalism.

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2. Tech & Innovations That Changed the World

After 1900, especially after WWII, crazy cool new tech made the world shrink:

• Internet & cell phones → instant communication

• Airplanes & shipping containers → faster global trade

• Green Revolution (1950s–60s):

• New farming techniques (GMOs, fertilizers) = more food

• Helped fight hunger but hurt environment

• Medical advances:

• Antibiotics → fewer people die of infections

• Vaccines → eradicated diseases like smallpox

• Birth control pill → changed women’s lives & gender roles

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3. Global Economies & Trade

Global capitalism totally took over.

• Free trade agreements (like NAFTA) made it easier for countries to trade.

• Multinational corporations (like McDonald’s, Apple, Nike) set up in multiple countries to make $$$.

• Outsourcing = jobs moved to countries with cheaper labor (like India or China).

China, Vietnam, and other Asian economies blew up in growth by becoming manufacturing hubs.

BUT…

• Rich countries got richer.

• Poor countries still struggled with inequality.

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4. Environmental Impacts

• Fossil fuels + deforestation = climate change.

• Cities growing fast → pollution, waste, and water shortages.

• Deforestation, overfishing, and extinction of species.

• Global warming = rising sea levels, extreme weather, etc.

Movements formed:

• Earth Day (1970) started environmental awareness.

• International groups like the Paris Climate Agreement try to reduce emissions.

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5. Resistance to Globalization

Not everyone’s a fan:

• Anti-globalization protests: people say big corporations hurt workers & the environment.

• Some countries reject Western culture (ex: Iran banning U.S. media).

• Others turn to nationalism (like Brexit in the UK—leaving the EU).

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6. Social Movements & Rights Expanding

People started demanding more justice and equality worldwide:

• Civil Rights (MLK in the U.S.)

• Feminist movements (women’s education, careers, reproductive rights)

• LGBTQ+ rights (decriminalization, gay marriage)

• Indigenous movements for land, respect, and autonomy

• Anti-apartheid (Nelson Mandela, South Africa)

• Environmental justice and climate strikes (Greta Thunberg vibe)

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7. Global Culture

Everyone’s sharing ideas and trends:

• Pop culture goes global: K-pop, Hollywood, anime, TikTok.

• Religion spreads:

• Christianity & Islam grow fast, especially in Africa/Asia.

• Global sports: World Cup, Olympics, NBA, etc.

• World languages: English becomes dominant for business & tech.

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8. Migration & Demographic Shifts

People are always on the move:

• Push/pull factors:

• Wars, poverty, political oppression → people flee.

• Jobs, safety, education → people migrate to richer places.

• Creates diverse cities, but also leads to tension sometimes.

• Refugees and immigrants face challenges but keep societies growing.

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9. Global Conflicts & Terrorism

Even in a connected world, conflict still exists:

• Ethnic conflicts & genocide:

• Rwanda (1994): Hutus vs. Tutsis.

• Bosnia (1990s): Ethnic cleansing during breakup of Yugoslavia.

• Terrorism:

• 9/11 by al-Qaeda → U.S. launches War on Terror (Afghanistan, Iraq).

• Global increase in security, surveillance, and Islamophobia.

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10. Global Institutions

Big orgs try to manage global problems:

• United Nations (UN) = world peace + humanitarian aid.

• World Bank & IMF = loans for developing countries.

• World Trade Organization (WTO) = manage trade.

• WHO (World Health Organization) = public health (like COVID-19 response).