pagan culture 08/27
Minoan Crete and Knossos
Artifacts and depictions in Knossos include statues of bare‑chested women holding snakes. These may reflect worship of a feminine/mother goddess or fertility goddess, or perhaps influential priestesses who governed.
Bulls recur in decoration around the palace; this ties to Crete’s mythic imagery (e.g., the Minotaur within a labyrinth).
Knossos is associated with the labyrinth myth; the site’s plan and frescoes reinforce this impression.
Double axe heads (labrys) are a recurring motif; they are linked to bull sacrifice and the sacred space of Knossos—the palace became a major center, the “place of the double axes.”
The Minoans appeared as big players on the regional stage; their fortifications were modest (less reliance on walls) because they felt secure against theft or invasion.
Evans (Arthur Evans) reconstructed some walls and attempted to present a sense of how Knossos looked in situ; he found notable frescoes (e.g., a Griffin fresco) in what’s called the Throne Room or reception area, often associated with ceremonial baths or guild spaces.
The Minoan settlement is contrasted with a contemporaneous mainland development: a more martial, fortified culture on the Greek mainland.
On the mainland, a different trajectory emerges: small kingdoms with fortified cities, developing a pirate-like raiding culture that extended outward to Egypt and the Near East, alongside trade.
Pilos Combat Gate (found by a team from Cincinnati) illustrates Mycenaean warrior culture; the detailed artistry on a ring demonstrates burying military prowess in art, a sign of value placed on combat.
A destruction layer is observed at multiple sites (both Crete and mainland Greece), signaling a collapse of the Mycenaean world and the end of the Bronze Age palatial centers.
After the destruction, a “Dark Ages” period begins: the writing system (Linear B) is lost; large swathes of population die (~75 ext{\%}); many people disperse to other regions (Turkey, Italy, Egypt).
The loss of writing marks a major turning point; the shared Greek literary tradition (e.g., Homer) emerges later and helps shape Greek identity and later Western storytelling.
Achilles becomes a foundational heroic figure in the post‑Destruction era, as recounted in Homer’s Iliad and later adaptations (e.g., Madeline Miller’s Song of Achilles explores a different portrayal of Achilles).
The concept of kleos (glory/fame) becomes central in Greek epic and identity.
Heracles (Hercules) is invoked to illustrate the naming and emphasis on heroism and divine lineage in Greek culture.
The idea that gifts, reception, and status were central to Greek social norms continues to shape later Athenian culture.
After the Dark Ages, Greece reorganizes into city‑states (poleis) with varying constitutions—some monarchies, some oligarchies, some democracies. Athens becomes the most famous example of democracy, driven by reform and resistance from aristocratic elites.
Seneca-like note: rich elites with inherited wealth resisted giving up power; reforms in Athens were incremental and continuous to break aristocratic control and implement democracy.
The Athenian assembly (a large public meeting) becomes central to decision making: speeches, persuasion, and public debate are key features.
The Persian threat accelerates Greek unity and political development; Persia is cast as the external “boogeyman.”
Marathon (Europe’s memory of the Persian Wars) emerges as a pivotal moment: Athenian support for Ionian Greeks leads to a decisive stand against Persian forces; Athenians repulse the invasion in a way that the Greeks frame as a victory of freedom and citizenry over a slave empire.
The battle is framed as a symbolic victory of free citizens over “the enslaved” on the other side, reinforcing Greek identity and political ideals.
Xerxes’ crossing of the Hellespont via a pontoon bridge exemplifies the scale of the Persian invasion; the army’s size and logistics are described with both awe and trepidation.
Thermopylae becomes a legendary stand: 300 Spartans (with auxiliary troops) hold a narrow pass against a much larger Persian force; betrayal of the Greeks allows the Persians to outflank the defenders, but the stand buys critical time for Greek unity and resistance.
Even after Greek success against Persia, internal Greek rivalries resurface; Persia pays for Greek ships and weapons, showing proxy conflict dynamics.
Philip II of Macedon reorganizes the Greek world from the north, strengthening an army (including cavalry) and laying groundwork for broader Greek hegemony; his leadership foreshadows the rise of a larger Greek‑speaking empire and sets the stage for the later conquests of his son, Alexander the Great.
The Mediterranean world thus moves from isolated city‑states to a network of larger interactions, with Greek culture and political ideas spreading into the western Mediterranean.
Some military innovations mentioned include the expansion of naval power (more oars per ship) and access to elephants (via trade routes to India and Africa), illustrating how military technology and resources expanded in the later classical world.
Geography matters: Greece and its islands sit in a region with variable topography, coastlines, and river systems; coastal alliances and geographic barriers shape political and military strategies.
The major rivers and regions are identified: Po, Rubicon, Tiber, Arno; the Po lies to the north; the Rubicon runs by Rome; the Tiber cuts through Rome; the Arno lies to the northwest; the Adriatic lies to the east; Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica form important peripheral regions.
The linguistic and cultural tapestry is complex: Latin and Italian identities coalesce later; early Italian tribes spoke various languages and dialects before Rome’s hegemony consolidated control.
The Aeneid (Vergil) frames Roman origins as built upon Trojan refugees led by Aeneas who eventually founds a new Troy in Italy; this myth links Rome to the Iliad’s narrative and helps to legitimize Roman identity in a Greco‑Roman context. In the epic, Aeneas carries his father Anchises and household gods; they sail from Troy to Italy, where they eventually encounter Alba Longa and the future city of Rome.
The Trojan myth is used to explain Rome’s origins, though the ancients acknowledge a legendary frame rather than a strict historical chronology. The Aeneid serves as a Roman meditation on noble lineage and destiny, even as it reworks the Iliad’s ending.
Romulus and Remus, twin founders raised by a she‑wolf on Palatine Hill, become central symbols of Rome’s origins; Romulus ultimately founds the city and establishing a political order, while Remus’ fate symbolically underscores the city’s martial and austere character.
The early Roman myth emphasizes fratricide as a defining theme of Roman origins and resilience, linking violence to civic identity and the formation of a robust urban center.
The early urban landscape on the Tiber is described as a swampy marsh that will later be drained to create the Roman Forum and city core.
Romulus’ establishment of social order includes recruiting neighboring populations (neighbors’ families and people living in nearby settlements), a process of incorporation that helps Rome grow beyond a small settlement into a regional power.
The Sabines’ attack on Rome after a cultural exchange is depicted; Rome responds by absorbing and legitimizing the presence of Sabine families, illustrating Rome’s pattern of incorporation rather than simple annihilation.
The story of the rape of Lucretia becomes the rallying cry for ending the kingly rule and establishing republican governance. Lucretia’s suicide after being assaulted by Tarquin the Proud’s son catalyzes Brutus and others to overthrow the monarchy.
The result is the formation of the res publica (the public thing), i.e., the Roman Republic, with shared governance among the aristocracy and the people, rather than a single monarch.
The 12 Tables codify early Roman law, establishing procedures that are fair and publicly accessible; this legal framework shapes Roman notions of justice and civic participation.
Early republic politics involve tension between patricians and plebeians; the plebeians gain political leverage through reform, ultimately challenging the patriciate’s control.
The Lex Licinia Sextia (Lykidian Sextium) laws introduce reforms to balance power and end certain abuses; notably, they allow at least one plebeian to hold the office of consul.
The nobiles (the “noble” class) arise as a political and social bloc, while humiliores (“humble ones”) denote those without wealth or power; this marks a shift to an oligarchic–aristocratic alignment within the Republic context.
Rome’s expansion over the next two centuries involves absorbing neighboring peoples and regions; Latin and Italian allies become integral to this expansion, with Rome often portraying its actions as protective rather than imperial.
The Pyrrhic War (Pyrrhus of Epirus) marks a complicated clash in Italy; Pyrrhus arrives with a formidable army, engages in battles with Rome, and ultimately fails to subdue Rome, highlighting Rome’s resilience and adaptability.
The republic’s political evolution continues: debt bondage is restricted or ended for plebeians; property limits (e.g., a cap on land ownership) are introduced to prevent the concentration of land in a single family; these steps promote broader citizen participation and prevent extreme social disruption.
The political vocabulary of Rome—virtus (virtue, manliness), exire (to go out of the herd, i.e., to deviate from societal norms), and other terms tied to Roman self‑image—reflects a culture that prizes masculine strength, communal loyalty, and shared public virtue.
The lecture ends with a brief meta‑comment about dense material and an acknowledge of a new teaching assistant, signaling a transition to more detailed study ahead.
Key people and terms to remember:
Arthur Evans: archaeologist who reconstructed parts of Knossos and interpreted Minoan culture; distinguished from Schliemann’s Troy excavations by attempting to present in situ conditions.
Heinrich Schliemann: archaeologist associated with Troy excavations, often seen as an aggressive, early archaeologist; contrasted with Evans in the talk.
Minos, Knossos, Labyrinth, Labrys: Minoan Greek mythos and architecture surrounding the Knossos palace; links to the Minotaur myth.
Minoans vs. Mycenaeans: two major Bronze Age civilizations in the Aegean; Minoans on Crete with a palace culture; Mycenaeans on the Greek mainland with fortifications and warrior culture.
Achilles, kleos, Homer: central Homeric hero; kleos is the glory or fame one gains through heroic deeds; Achilles as a symbol of heroic identity in Greek epic.
Aeneas, Alba Longa, Romulus and Remus: foundational myths linking Troy and Rome; the Aeneid as a Roman literary project to fuse Trojan legacy with Roman destiny.
Tarquin the Proud, Brutus, Lucretia: key figures/events in Roman foundational myths; Lucretia’s death as a trigger for the foundation of the Roman Republic.
The 12 Tables, Lex Licinia Sextia: primary early Roman legal and constitutional milestones.
Patricians, plebeians, nobiles, humiliores: social classes in early Rome and their evolving power dynamics.
Pyrrhus of Epirus: king who challenged Rome in Italy, illustrating Rome’s early expansion and resistance to interventionist European powers.
Geography terms: Tiber, Rubicon, Po, Arno; Adriatic; Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica; the Forum; Palatine Hill.
Cultural notes: the discourses on writing (Linear B), the Dark Ages, and the eventual rebirth of Greek writing and literature, including the Aeneid as a Roman re‑frame of a Greek epic.
Important numbers and dates (as cited in the transcript):
Destruction event in the Bronze Age cultures and a collapse leading to the Dark Ages: broadly referenced as a devastating collapse with widespread population decline; exact dates not provided in the text, but historically around ext{c. } 1200–1100 ext{ BCE}.
Population impact: about 75 ext{ ext{%}} of the population dies off during the collapse.
Writing and records: Linear B writing is lost and later becomes deciphered in the context of Greek development; the exact dates are not specified in the transcript.
Marathon: a pivotal battle during the Persian Wars (date not specified in the transcript).
The seven hills of Rome; references to the topography and urban layout around the Roman Forum.
The Lex Licinia Sextia laws mark a key constitutional reform; dates not specified in the transcript.
The expansion from a small river town on the Tiber to roughly 300 ext{ square miles} of urbanized area was accomplished within the early Republic, accommodating ~30{,}000 ext{–}40{,}000 people (figures described in the talk).
Connections to themes and larger relevance:
The lecture threads together Bronze Age Aegean civilizations with the later Greek world and the Roman Republic, emphasizing how myth, archaeology, and politics interweave to shape cultural memory.
It highlights how geography (islands, coasts, passes, rivers) structures political and military strategies across the Mediterranean.
The persistence of myth (Trojan origins of Rome, the she‑wolf on Palatine Hill, the story of Lucretia) shows how ancient societies used narrative to legitimize political structures and civic ideals.
The evolution from monarchy to republic in Rome mirrors a broader arc in Western political development: cautious reform, tension between elite control and popular sovereignty, and the establishment of legal codes that aim to balance power and protect citizens.
The session underscores how later civilizations reinterpret and reframe earlier legends (e.g., Vergil’s Aeneid) to serve contemporary political and cultural intentions.