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Building Blocks of Behaviour II - Memory Course

Introduction to Memory

  • While waiting for the lecture to start, students are prompted to think of an example of a time when they couldn’t remember something, e.g., "I forgot my neighbour’s name."

Memory Components

  • Key Components of Memory:

    • Encoding

    • Storage

    • Retrieval

Clinical Case: Clive Wearing

  • An exploration of Clive Wearing’s case illustrates the complications that arise when memory components fail. Specific inquiry into which component of Clive's memory was compromised will be addressed.

Component 1: Encoding

  • Definition: Encoding is the process of how information gets into memory. It is emphasized that attention is critical for effective encoding.

  • Characteristics of Encoding:

    • Focusing awareness on characteristics that aid memory formation, leading to common failures in everyday memory, such as forgetting names.

    • Divided attention can impede memory formation.

    • E.g., "Using phones and computers during lectures can cost students half a grade in exams."

Levels of Processing Theory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972)

  • Types of encoding include:

    1. Shallow: Structural encoding (physical appearance)

    2. Intermediate: Phonemic encoding (sound)

    3. Deep: Semantic encoding (meaning)

  • Key Insight: Deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memory codes and better recall.

Practical Applications

  • Questions for Students:

    1. How can you apply this theory to improve your study techniques?

    2. How can this knowledge help your patients remember information?

  • The exercise illustrates the effective application of these processes in real-life situations.

Component 2: Storage

  • Definition: Storage refers to how information is maintained in memory.

  • Influenced by the invention of computers, leading to the development of information-processing models.

  • Multi-Store Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1970s):

    • Identifies three separate stores:

    1. Sensory Memory

    2. Short-Term Memory (STM)

    3. Long-Term Memory (LTM)

    • Important Note: These are not anatomical structures but metaphorical constructs for understanding memory storage.

  • Duration and capacity of each memory type:

    • Sensory Memory: Information lasts for milliseconds or seconds, depending on stimulus type.

    • Short-Term Memory: Limited capacity; lasts about 20 seconds.

    • Long-Term Memory: Unlimited capacity; information can last indefinitely.

Component 3: Retrieval

  • Definition: Retrieval is the process of how information is recovered from memory.

  • Issues affecting retrieval:

    • Information retrieved is not exact replicas and may be distorted.

    • The Misinformation effect: Misleading information can impact memory accuracy.

    • E.g., the impact of question wording on eyewitness testimony.

Factors Influencing Retrieval

  1. Order of Encoding:

    • Serial-Position Effect: A U-shaped curve illustrating better recall for items at the beginning (LTM) and end (WM) of a list.

  2. Time: Most forgetting occurs immediately after memorization, as delineated by Ebbinghaus (1885) in his studies on nonsense syllables like XOS.

  3. Meaningfulness: Information that is meaningful leads to better recall.

  4. Retrieval Cues: Hints or prompts that can facilitate memory recall.

Why We Forget

  • Four Main Reasons for Forgetting:

    1. Ineffective Encoding: If information is not encoded properly due to lack of attention, it is typically forgotten.

    • E.g., the idea of pseudo-forgetting arises here.

    1. Decay: Memory loss that occurs due to the fading of information over time; while this is a common belief, empirical support is limited.

    2. Interference: Competing information can prevent successful retention.

    • Retroactive Interference: New information impedes the retention of old information.

    • Proactive Interference: Old information disrupts the retention of new information.

    1. Retrieval Failure: Often exemplified by the “Tip-of-the-tongue” phenomenon, indicating significant retrieval issues.

Memory Disorders

  • Common Memory Disorders:

    • Amnesia: Can be partial or total memory loss.

    • Retrograde Amnesia: Inability to recall events prior to onset, often due to retrieval failure.

    • Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories or retain new information, often linked to consolidation failures.

    • Post-traumatic Amnesia: A combination of both retrograde and anterograde amnesia characteristics.

  • Clinical Case: Clive Wearing: A focus on Clive Wearing's amnesia types to exemplify these categories.

Causes of Amnesia

  • Identified Causes:

    • Brain injuries.

    • Drug-related effects, such as benzodiazepines (BZD) and anesthetics.

    • Encephalitis and Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT).

    • Korsakoff’s Syndrome associated with alcoholism.

    • Severe emotional trauma and lack of stimulation.

    • Alzheimer’s disease, affecting approximately 50% of individuals by age 85, which is not a part of normal aging.

Memory Loss in Alzheimer’s Disease

  • Initial intact working memory, increased distraction sensitivity.

  • Long-term memory patterns:

    • Procedural memory tends to be relatively intact.

    • Declarative Memory: Semantic and episodic aspects suffer from deficits leading to recall difficulties.

    • Among the first signs are missed appointments and forgetfulness, indicative of rapid memory loss (Ribot’s law).

Strategies for Improving Memory and Recall

  • For Patients:

    1. Understand factors affecting recall and the context around memory problems, which are not always age-related.

    2. Identify situational factors that influence recall, such as stress or distraction.

    3. Utilize memory strategies:

    • Chunk information for clarity.

    • Emphasize important information first and summarize key points at the end (Primacy & Recency effect).

    • Encourage meaningful connections to facilitate deeper encoding, repetition, and deliberate rehearsal of key information.

    • Provide visual aids to serve as retrieval cues.

  • For Personal Study Skills:

    1. Optimize encoding by minimizing distractions.

    2. Space learning to avoid mass practice.

    3. Engage in deeper processing techniques like elaboration, diagramming, and paraphrasing.

    4. Create personal connections to existing knowledge for improved recall.

Applying Learning

  • Reflect on personal memory loss incidents. Analyze:

    1. Which type of memory failure occurred (examples include encoding failure, sensory, working memory, or long-term memory)?

    2. Investigate likely reasons for forgetting the information.

    3. Determine what strategies could assist in improving recall in the future.

Relevant Reading

  • Required Reading:

    • van Teijlingen, E., & Humphris, G. M. (2019). Psychology and Sociology Applied to Medicine: An Illustrated Colour Text, 4th edition, Elsevier Health Sciences, pp. 26-27.

    • Alder, B., Teijlingen, E. van, & Porter, M. (2011). Psychology and Sociology Applied to Medicine, 3rd edition, pp. 28-29.

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