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bio 112 final exam unit 3 animals
Animal Tissue and Cell Structure and Function
Epithelial Tissue: This is a type of tissue that forms protective layers on the body surfaces and organs.
Simple Epithelial: A single layer of cells (e.g., lining of blood vessels).
Stratified Epithelial: Multiple layers of cells (e.g., skin).
Squamous: Flat, scale-like cells (e.g., skin surface).
Columnar: Taller, column-shaped cells (e.g., lining of intestines).
Cuboidal: Cube-shaped cells (e.g., kidney tubules).
Connective Tissue: This tissue provides support, binding, and protection. It consists of cells and extracellular matrix.
Loose Connective Tissue: Flexible and holds organs in place (e.g., under skin).
Fibrous Connective Tissue: Dense and provides strength (e.g., tendons, ligaments).
Tendons: Connect muscles to bones.
Ligaments: Connect bones to bones.
Bone: A type of connective tissue that provides structure and support.
Cartilage: Flexible tissue found in joints and between bones.
Blood: Connective tissue that transports nutrients, gases, and waste.
Plasma: Liquid part of blood that carries nutrients and waste.
Cells: Red blood cells (carry oxygen), white blood cells (fight infection), and platelets (help with clotting).
Adipose Tissue: Stores fat for energy and insulation.
Brown Fat: Fat tissue specialized in heat production (more active in mammals).
Regular Fat: Stores energy and insulates.
Muscle Tissue: Responsible for movement.
Striated (skeletal and cardiac): Have visible bands of fibers.
Skeletal Muscle: Voluntary, attached to bones for movement.
Cardiac Muscle: Involuntary, found in the heart, has branching fibers.
Smooth Muscle: Involuntary, no striations, found in walls of organs (e.g., intestines).
Nervous Tissue: Responsible for transmitting signals throughout the body.
Neuron vs. Nerve:
Neuron: The individual cell that carries electrical impulses.
Nerve: A bundle of axons from neurons.
Neuron Structure:
Cell Body: Contains the nucleus.
Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons.
Axon: Transmits signals away from the cell body.
Synaptic Terminals: End of the axon where neurotransmitters are released.
Glial Cells: Support neurons, examples include Schwann cells (help form myelin around neurons).
Animal Homeostasis
Homeostasis: The process by which animals maintain stable internal conditions (e.g., temperature, pH, glucose levels).
Role of Negative Feedback:
Involves a response that counteracts a change to keep things stable (e.g., temperature regulation). If body temperature increases, mechanisms like sweating are activated to cool the body.
Example of Thermoregulation:
Thermoregulation: The process of maintaining an internal temperature.
Endothermy: Animals that generate their own heat to maintain body temperature (e.g., mammals, birds).
Ectothermy: Animals that rely on external sources of heat to regulate their body temperature (e.g., reptiles, amphibians).
Heterothermy: Animals that can switch between endothermic and ectothermic states, depending on conditions (e.g., some mammals and birds).
Homothermy: Maintaining a constant body temperature regardless of environmental temperature.
Relationship Between Body Size + Surface Area to Volume Ratio:
Smaller animals have a larger surface area relative to their volume, which means they lose heat more quickly (e.g., small mammals need to eat more frequently).
Larger animals have a smaller surface area relative to their volume, so they retain heat better (e.g., large mammals like elephants).
Role of Body Size in Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR):
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR): The rate at which an animal uses energy at rest.
Smaller animals generally have a higher BMR because they lose heat faster and need more energy to maintain their temperature.
Larger animals have a lower BMR, as they retain heat more efficiently.
Process of Digestion
Ingestion: The act of taking in food through the mouth.
Peristalsis: The wave-like muscle contractions that push food through the digestive tract.
Digestion: The process where food is broken down into smaller components.
Absorption: Nutrients from digested food are absorbed into the blood or lymph.
Organs, Tissues, and Cell Types Involved
Mouth:
Teeth: Used to break food into smaller pieces (mechanical digestion).
Tongue: Moves food around in the mouth and helps form a bolus.
Salivary Glands: Produce saliva that contains enzymes to start breaking down starch.
Esophagus: The tube that moves food from the mouth to the stomach using peristalsis.
Stomach:
Chief Cells: Produce pepsinogen, which becomes pepsin and helps digest proteins.
Parietal Cells: Secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl) to activate pepsin and break down food.
Small Intestine:
Lumen: The central cavity where digestion and absorption occur.
Folds, Villi, Microvilli: Increase surface area for absorption of nutrients.
Liver and Gallbladder:
Liver: Produces bile, which helps break down fats.
Gallbladder: Stores bile and releases it into the small intestine.
Pancreas: Produces digestive enzymes and bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid in the small intestine.
Enzymes/Secretions and Their Actions
Salivary Amylase:
Origin: Salivary glands.
Action: Breaks down starch into smaller sugars.
Location: Mouth.
Lingual Lipase:
Origin: Tongue.
Action: Begins fat digestion.
Location: Mouth.
Gastric Lipase:
Origin: Stomach.
Action: Digests fats in the stomach.
Location: Stomach.
Pepsin:
Origin: Stomach (activated from pepsinogen).
Action: Breaks down proteins.
Location: Stomach.
Bile:
Origin: Liver (stored in gallbladder).
Action: Emulsifies fats, making them easier to digest.
Location: Small intestine.
Carboxypeptidase:
Origin: Pancreas.
Action: Breaks down proteins by removing amino acids from the end of protein chains.
Location: Small intestine.
Chymotrypsin:
Origin: Pancreas.
Action: Breaks down proteins.
Location: Small intestine.
Elastase:
Origin: Pancreas.
Action: Breaks down elastin, a protein found in connective tissue.
Location: Small intestine.
Trypsin:
Origin: Pancreas.
Action: Breaks down proteins.
Location: Small intestine.
Nucleases:
Origin: Pancreas.
Action: Breaks down nucleic acids (DNA/RNA).
Location: Small intestine.
Pancreatic Amylase:
Origin: Pancreas.
Action: Breaks down starch into simpler sugars.
Location: Small intestine.
Pancreatic Lipase:
Origin: Pancreas.
Action: Breaks down fats.
Location: Small intestine.
Hormonal Regulation
Insulin:
Role: Lowers blood glucose levels by promoting glucose uptake into cells.
Source: Pancreas.
Glucagon:
Role: Raises blood glucose levels by stimulating the liver to release glucose.
Source: Pancreas.
Diabetes:
Type I Diabetes: The immune system attacks insulin-producing cells in the pancreas.
Type II Diabetes: Cells become resistant to insulin, leading to high blood sugar.
Macronutrients
Carbohydrates: Provide energy (e.g., sugars, starches).
Proteins: Made of amino acids, essential for growth and repair.
Fats: Provide energy, store vitamins, and are important for cell membranes.
Micronutrients (Needed in small amounts)
Vitamins:
Vitamin A: Important for vision and immune function.
Thiamine (B1): Helps in carbohydrate metabolism.
Niacin (B3): Supports energy production.
Folate: Important for DNA synthesis.
Vitamin C: Antioxidant and important for collagen formation.
Vitamin D: Helps with calcium absorption.
Vitamin E: Antioxidant.
Vitamin K: Important for blood clotting.
Minerals:
Iodine (I): Necessary for thyroid hormone production.
Iron (Fe): Important for oxygen transport in blood.
Calcium (Ca): Essential for bone health.
Potassium (K): Important for muscle and nerve function.
Sodium (Na): Regulates fluid balance.
Sulfur (S): Important for amino acid and protein synthesis.
Chlorine (Cl): Helps with fluid balance.
Fluorine (F): Important for dental health.
Structure and Function of the Human Kidney and Excretory System
Cortex: The outer region of the kidney where blood filtration begins.
Medulla: The inner region of the kidney, responsible for concentrating urine and maintaining osmolarity.
Nephron: The functional unit of the kidney, responsible for filtering blood and forming urine.
Glomerulus: A cluster of capillaries where filtration of blood occurs.
Proximal Convoluted Tubule: The first part of the nephron where most of the reabsorption of water, ions, and nutrients occurs.
Loop of Henle:
Descending Limb: Water is reabsorbed here.
Thin Ascending Limb: Permeable to ions but not water.
Thick Ascending Limb: Actively pumps ions into the surrounding tissue, contributing to the osmotic gradient.
Distal Convoluted Tubule: Involved in selective reabsorption and secretion of ions.
Collecting Duct: Final area where water reabsorption occurs, and urine is concentrated.
Ureter: Transports urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.
Urinary Bladder: Stores urine until excretion.
Urethra: The duct through which urine is excreted from the body.
Hormonal Regulation of the Excretory System and Blood Osmolarity
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): Regulates water balance by increasing water reabsorption in the kidneys.
Aldosterone (extra credit): Increases sodium reabsorption and potassium secretion in the kidneys, impacting blood pressure.
Role of the Juxtaglomerular Apparatus (JGA): Helps regulate blood pressure and glomerular filtration rate by releasing renin.
Animal Cardiovascular System (Respiratory and Circulatory)
Fish Gill Structure and Function
Countercurrent Arrangement: Blood and water flow in opposite directions to maximize oxygen absorption from water to blood.
Human Lungs Structure and Function
Lungs: Organs for gas exchange.
Bronchi: Tubes that carry air from the trachea into the lungs.
Bronchioles: Smaller branches of the bronchi leading to the alveoli.
Alveoli: Tiny air sacs where oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide in the blood.
Capillaries: Tiny blood vessels surrounding alveoli where gas exchange occurs.
Diaphragm: Muscle that controls breathing by expanding and contracting the lungs.
Human Heart Structure and Function
Left vs. Right: The left side pumps oxygenated blood to the body, and the right side pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
Atria: Upper chambers that receive blood.
Ventricles: Lower chambers that pump blood.
Atrioventricular Valves: Tricuspid (right side) and bicuspid/mitral (left side) valves that separate the atria and ventricles.
Semilunar Valves: Aortic (left side) and pulmonary (right side) valves that separate the ventricles from the arteries.
Pulmonary Artery: Carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs.
Aorta: Carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body.
Pulmonary Veins: Return oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium.
Superior/Anterior Vena Cava: Carries deoxygenated blood from the upper body to the right atrium.
Inferior/Posterior Vena Cava: Carries deoxygenated blood from the lower body to the right atrium.
Cardiac Cycle
SA Node (Pacemaker): The heart's natural pacemaker, which initiates the heartbeat.
AV Node: Slows the electrical signal before passing it to the ventricles, ensuring the atria have time to contract.
Systole: The phase of the cardiac cycle when the heart contracts and pumps blood out.
Diastole: The phase when the heart relaxes and fills with blood.
ECG (Electrocardiogram): Measures the electrical activity of the heart.
Human Blood Vessels Structure + Function
Artery: Thick-walled vessels that carry oxygenated blood away from the heart.
Arterioles: Smaller arteries that regulate blood flow into capillaries.
Capillaries: Tiny vessels where nutrient and gas exchange occur.
Lymphatic Capillaries: These are part of the lymphatic system and collect excess tissue fluid (lymph) to return it to the bloodstream. They are closed-ended and highly permeable, helping with immune function and fluid balance.
Venules: Small veins that collect deoxygenated blood from capillaries.
Veins: Vessels that carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
Key Terms in the Cardiovascular System
Systole: Heart contraction phase where blood is pumped out.
Diastole: Heart relaxation phase where the heart fills with blood
Neuron Structure and Function
Dendrites: Branch-like extensions that receive signals from other neurons.
Cell Body (Soma): The central part of the neuron that contains the nucleus and organelles.
Axon: Long, thread-like structure that transmits electrical signals away from the cell body.
Synaptic Terminals: The end part of the axon that releases neurotransmitters to communicate with other cells.
Action Potential:
Resting Potential: The baseline voltage of a neuron (-70 mV) when not transmitting a signal.
Depolarization: A reduction in membrane potential (the inside of the cell becomes less negative) when sodium ions (Na+) rush into the neuron.
Threshold Potential: The critical level of depolarization needed to trigger an action potential (-55 mV).
Repolarization: Return to resting potential as potassium ions (K+) move out of the neuron, making the inside more negative.
Hyperpolarization: When the membrane potential becomes more negative than the resting potential, often due to the over-efflux of K+ ions.
Ion Channels & Pumps:
Na+/K+ Membrane Pump: Actively pumps sodium out and potassium into the cell, maintaining the resting potential.
Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels: Channels that open during depolarization, allowing Na+ ions to flow into the neuron.
Voltage-Gated Potassium Channels: Channels that open during repolarization, allowing K+ ions to flow out of the neuron.
Myelin Sheath & Saltatory Conduction:
Schwann Cells: Glial cells that produce myelin in the peripheral nervous system.
Myelin: Fatty material that insulates the axon, speeding up the transmission of nerve impulses.
Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps between the myelin sheath where action potentials are regenerated, enabling saltatory conduction.
Saltatory Conduction: The "jumping" of action potentials from node to node, increasing the speed of nerve impulse transmission.
Neurotransmitters:
Neurotransmitter: Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses between neurons.
Neuromuscular Junction: The synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle cell.
Acetylcholine: A neurotransmitter that plays a key role in muscle contraction and brain function.
Muscle Contraction:
Sarcomere: The basic unit of muscle contraction, composed of actin and myosin filaments.
Actin: Thin protein filaments involved in muscle contraction.
Myosin: Thick protein filaments that pull on actin during muscle contraction.
Autonomic Nervous System:
Sympathetic: The "fight or flight" division of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for stressful situations (e.g., increases heart rate, dilates pupils).
Parasympathetic: The "rest and digest" division of the autonomic nervous system that conserves energy and promotes normal body functions (e.g., decreases heart rate, stimulates digestion).
Reflex Arc:
A neural pathway that controls a reflex action, typically involving a sensory neuron, an interneuron in the spinal cord, and a motor neuron.
Human Brain Structure and Function
Brain Stem: The part of the brain responsible for basic life functions, such as heartbeat, breathing, and swallowing.
Diencephalon: Includes structures like the thalamus (relays sensory signals) and hypothalamus (regulates homeostasis and hormones).
Cerebellum: The region involved in motor control, coordination, and balance.
Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain responsible for higher brain functions like thought, memory, and emotion.
Hemispheres:
Left Hemisphere: Primarily responsible for language, logic, and reasoning.
Right Hemisphere: Primarily responsible for spatial abilities, face recognition, and non-verbal processing.
Corpus Callosum: The structure that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, allowing communication between them.
Lobes of the Brain:
Frontal Lobe: Responsible for decision-making, problem-solving, planning, and voluntary movement.
Parietal Lobe: Involved in sensory processing and spatial awareness.
Temporal Lobe: Responsible for auditory processing and memory.
Occipital Lobe: Involved in visual processing.
Human Reproductive System Structure and Function
Sperm and Egg Structure
Sperm: Male reproductive cell, consisting of:
Head: Contains genetic material (DNA) and acrosome (helps in egg penetration).
Midpiece: Contains mitochondria to produce energy for movement.
Tail (Flagellum): Provides motility to swim toward the egg.
Egg (Oocyte): Female reproductive cell, consisting of:
Cytoplasm: Contains nutrients for the early stages of embryo development.
Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA).
Zona Pellucida: Protective outer layer surrounding the egg.
Male Organs
Testes: Produce sperm and testosterone.
Scrotum: Sac that holds the testes outside the body for temperature regulation.
Seminiferous Tubules: Located within the testes, where sperm production occurs.
Epididymis: Stores and matures sperm.
Vas Deferens: Tube that transports sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct.
Seminal Vesicle: Produces seminal fluid to nourish and transport sperm.
Prostate: Produces a fluid that aids sperm motility and neutralizes vaginal acidity.
Ejaculatory Duct: Carries sperm and seminal fluid into the urethra.
Urethra: Passageway for urine and sperm (in males).
Bulbourethral Gland: Produces pre-ejaculate to neutralize urethral acidity.
Penis: Organ for urination and sexual reproduction, consisting of:
Shaft: The elongated part of the penis.
Glans: The head of the penis.
Prepuce (Foreskin): Skin covering the glans (in uncircumcised males).
Female Organs
Ovary: Produces eggs (oocytes) and hormones (estrogen and progesterone).
Oviduct (Fallopian Tube): Transports eggs from the ovary to the uterus; site of fertilization.
Uterus: The organ where a fertilized egg implants and develops into a fetus.
Cervix: The lower part of the uterus that opens into the vagina; regulates the entry of sperm and menstrual flow.
Vagina: The muscular canal that connects the uterus to the external genitalia; also used during childbirth and sexual intercourse.
Clitoris: Organ of sexual pleasure; consists of the shaft, glans, and prepuce (similar to the male penis).
Labia: Folds of skin that protect the vaginal opening:
Labia Majora: Larger, outer folds.
Labia Minora: Smaller, inner folds.
Menstrual Cycle Hormone Regulation
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): Stimulates the growth and maturation of ovarian follicles.
Luteinizing Hormone (LH): Triggers ovulation and the release of the egg.
Estrogen: Involved in the regulation of the menstrual cycle, and the development of secondary sexual characteristics.
Progesterone: Prepares the uterus for pregnancy and helps maintain pregnancy.
Nonhuman Animal Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
Fragmentation: Organism breaks into pieces, and each piece regenerates into a new individual (e.g., starfish).
Fission: Organism splits into two or more parts, each developing into a new organism (e.g., bacteria, amoeba).
Budding: A new organism grows from a bud or outgrowth on the parent organism (e.g., yeast, corals).
Parthenogenesis: Reproduction from an unfertilized egg, resulting in offspring that are clones of the mother (e.g., some reptiles, amphibians, and insects).
Sexual Reproduction
Hermaphroditism: Organisms have both male and female reproductive organs (e.g., earthworms).
Simultaneous Hermaphroditism: Organisms have both reproductive organs at the same time.
Synchronous Hermaphroditism: Organisms alternate between male and female reproductive roles during different stages of life.
Spawning: The release of eggs and sperm into the water for external fertilization (e.g., fish, amphibians).
Internal Fertilization: Fertilization occurs inside the female body (e.g., mammals, birds, reptiles).
Animal Development
Three Germ Layers Formed at Gastrulation:
Endoderm: The innermost germ layer; gives rise to internal structures such as the digestive system and lungs.
Mesoderm: The middle layer; forms muscles, bones, heart, kidneys, and blood vessels.
Ectoderm: The outermost layer; forms the skin, nervous system, and sensory organs
Adaptive Immunity:
This is the body's more specific, long-term defense and involves a memory of past infections.
Lymphatic System: Network that transports immune cells and helps remove pathogens.
Thymus: Organ where T cells mature.
Bone Marrow: Produces all blood cells, including immune cells like B cells and T cells.
Lymphatic Vessels: Carry lymph (fluid containing white blood cells) throughout the body.
Lymph Nodes: Small structures that filter lymph and provide a site for immune cell activation.
Lymphocytes: A type of white blood cell involved in the immune response. There are two main types: B cells and T cells.
B Cells:
Naïve B Cells: B cells that have not yet encountered their specific antigen.
B Plasma Cells: B cells that have been activated and secrete antibodies.
Memory B Cells: Long-lived B cells that "remember" a specific antigen, providing quicker and stronger responses to future infections by the same pathogen.
T Cells:
Helper T Cells (CD4): Activate other immune cells, including B cells and cytotoxic T cells.
Cytotoxic T Cells (CD8): Kill infected or cancerous cells by recognizing specific antigens.
Memory T Cells: T cells that "remember" a specific pathogen, enabling a faster response upon future exposure.
Antibodies: Proteins produced by B plasma cells that bind to specific antigens, neutralizing pathogens or marking them for destruction.
Immune Response:
Primary Immune Response: The initial response when the body encounters a pathogen for the first time. It takes time for B and T cells to recognize the pathogen, proliferate, and generate antibodies.
Secondary Immune Response (Immunological Memory): A faster and stronger response upon re-exposure to the same pathogen, thanks to memory B and T cells that "remember" the pathogen.
Vaccines:
Vaccines contain weakened or inactivated parts of a pathogen, stimulating the immune system to produce a primary immune response without causing illness. This primes the immune system for faster and more effective protection if the pathogen is encountered again in the future