Unit 2: Spain and the Aztecs
Silk Road
Trade routes that ran from China to the edges of Europe.
Goods traveled and merchants became wealthy.
Two types of routes used: land and sea.
Europeans acquired luxuries from the East, including:
Silk
Spices
Paper
Gems
European Goods versus Eastern Goods
Europe primarily had wool and a limited supply of linen.
Silk was lighter, more comfortable, and a status symbol in Europe.
Spices were particularly valued as they could mask the taste of rotting food.
Originated from the East; Europe had only herbs and mustard.
China invented paper, leading to advancements in mass production of books.
Europe used parchment, made from scraped sheepskin, which was labor-intensive.
Gems were primarily sourced from Asia for use in jewelry and decoration.
Limited European trade goods were desired in Asia; silver was the primary good.
Silver served as the basis for Chinese currency.
Valuable spices included:
Cinnamon
Pepper
Ginger
Cloves
Nutmeg
Middlemen in Trade
The further west goods traveled, the more expensive they became due to middlemen merchants.
These merchants collectively increased prices to earn profits.
Referenced class exercise about pricing after multiple hands of trade.
To minimize costs, some traders sought to avoid middlemen by using maritime routes.
Key Historical Figures
Henry the Navigator
Financed voyages from Portugal to Africa but did not participate in the travels.
Christopher Columbus
Theorized a faster route to Asia by sailing west.
Spain aimed to discover a direct sea route to China.
Made four voyages, mistakenly claiming to reach Asia, when in fact he arrived in the Caribbean.
In the Caribbean, Columbus focused on:
Conversion and enslavement of natives by Spain.
Searching for gold in the region; actual gold was located on the mainland, leading to the failure of his gold mining endeavors.
The indigenous population faced devastation from:
Famine
Overwork
Diseases brought by Europeans.
Discovered what he termed "Indians" and noted the presence of cotton.
Reconquista
A holy war focused on expelling Muslims from the Iberian Peninsula.
Marked the end of Muslim control with a Christian victory in 1492, the same year Columbus embarked on his voyage.
Younger sons of nobles became soldiers during this time.
Conquistadores
Soldiers who participated in the Reconquista.
Motivated by a culture centered on warfare for religious reasons and opportunities for land and fame.
Successful Reconquista led to the end of existing ways of life and promised wealth and glory.
Aztec Civilization
Quetzalcoatl
A Toltec god associated with:
Learning
Books
Wind
Death and rebirth.
It was believed he would return, and Spanish arrival caused some natives to perceive Cortes as Quetzalcoatl.
Montezuma II
The ruler of the Aztec Empire during Cortes' arrival.
Initially welcomed Cortes into the capital but was eventually imprisoned by him.
Attempted to appease Cortes with gifts but was ultimately killed in captivity.
Hernan Cortes
Led the Spanish conquest that resulted in the fall of the Aztec Empire and established Spanish control over Mexico.
Natives believed him to be Quetzalcoatl.
Formed political alliances with native groups hostile to the Aztecs.
Justified his conquests by labeling the Aztecs as "ruthless and violent," claiming they needed to be converted to Christianity, which he did through further violence.
Wrote letters to Spain to gain support for his conquests.
Bartolomé de Las Casas
Critically opposed Cortes in his writings, arguing that Cortes had ulterior motives and exhibited cruelty beyond what the Aztecs had previously done.
Advocated for the rights of indigenous peoples.
Aztec Political Structure and Society
Composition of the Aztec Empire
The Aztec Empire consisted of a network of small city-states that survived the collapse of the Toltec rule, having 38 provinces in total.
The empire was built on:
Military conquest
Tribute from conquered subjects.
Maintained a loose control that allowed local rulers to govern their regions.
Tribute Demands
The Aztecs demanded tribute in forms such as:
Gold
Maize (corn)
Cacao beans (used to make chocolate)
Cotton
Jade.
They would destroy villages if tribute was not paid.
Social Hierarchy of Aztecs
The Aztec social pyramid consisted of:
Emperor
Nobles
Merchants
Commoners
Enslaved individuals.
Tenochtitlan
The capital city of the Aztec Empire, now Mexico City.
Built through the Triple Alliance with Texcoco and Tlacopan.
Human Sacrifice
Human sacrifices were performed as part of religious practices.
The Aztecs conquered territories through warfare, disease, and military alliances.
Spanish Conquests of the Americas
Francisco Pizarro
A conquistador who led the conquest of the Incan Empire.
Ambushed and kidnapped Atahualpa, the Incan ruler.
Brazil
Managed to stay out of Spanish control and was eventually colonized by Portugal under Cabral.
Francisco Vasquez de Coronado
Led a large but unsuccessful expedition to find the legendary Seven Cities of Gold.
Malinche
Originally a Mexica woman who was gifted to the Spaniards by a Mayan leader.
Known as Dona Marina to the Spaniards and called Malintzin by the Mexica.
Sold into slavery to the Mayans and was fluent in both the Mayan dialect and Nahuatl.
Assisted Cortes in communication with various native groups, forming crucial military alliances.
Developed a sexual relationship with Cortes and bore him a son.
Imperialism and Encomienda System
Definition of Imperialism
A policy aimed at extending a country's control over another socially, politically, or economically.
Encomienda System
System of granting land to Spanish settlers.
Allowed settlers total control over local indigenous populations, who were used as slave labor or taxed.
Theoretical function:
Protecting, caring for, and Christianizing the Indians.
Natives were expected to work for settlers.
Reality:
Spanish settlers exploited labor without compensation, failed to protect Indians, and seized their lands, resulting in high mortality rates due to disease and harsh conditions.
Cash Crops and Agricultural Practices
Encomienda eventually ended due to clergy protests and native revolts.
Abuses continued under new names.
Types of crops produced:
Coastal plantations: Sugar, cocoa.
Private estates: Grains, grapes, cattle, horses, sheep.
Silver Mines
Mexico and Peru contributed to 85\% of the global silver supply.
Over 40\% of which was funneled into Chinese markets.
20\% was allocated to the Spanish treasury for military and governmental expenses.
Cerro de Potosí:
Notable mountain with abundant silver resources.
Triangle Trade
A network of trade routes spanning North and South America, the West Indies, England, Europe, and Africa.
Manufactured goods from Europe were exchanged for enslaved people from Africa transferred to the Americas.
Raw materials from the Americas were sent back to Europe.
Process included:
Europeans transporting manufactured goods to West Africa.
Trading these goods for captured Africans.
Transporting Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the West Indies where they were sold into slavery.
Merchants purchased sugar, coffee, and tobacco from the West Indies for transportation to Europe.
Rum and other goods were carried from New England to Africa for trading, creating a complex cycle of commerce.
Atlantic Slave Trade
Trade network specifically designed for the conveyance of enslaved individuals to the Americas.
Characterized by forced labor.
Routes of this trade included:
Triangular trade routes and the Middle Passage.
Consequences in Africa included:
Loss of generations of young and able individuals to European traders and plantation owners.
Families became fragmented due to the trade.
Introduction of firearms increased warfare.
Contributions from Africa to America:
Labor in agriculture and cultural practices.
Resulted in a mixed population in the Americas.
Social Classes in the Americas
Peninsulares
Individuals born in Europe.
Creole
Individuals of European descent born in the Americas.
Dominated the local government and economy.
Mestizo
Individuals of mixed descent between European men and native women.
Middle Passage
A leg of the transatlantic trade triangle responsible for transporting captured Africans to the West Indies.
Conditions aboard were horrific:
Individuals packed tightly, kept in dark ships.
Physical abuse and neglect were rampant.
Disease spread quickly on board, leading to high mortality rates.
Many died from disease, physical abuse, or suicide.
Documented example includes Olaudah Equiano, an African who was enslaved at age 12.
Slavery Throughout History
Historical Context
Babylon/Hammurabi's Code:
Slaves considered currency, similar in status to cattle; imposed severe restrictions.
Greeks:
Slavery often involved prisoners of war and those sold into servitude; however, some able to earn wages and purchase freedom.
Romans:
Slaves typically were prisoners of war or born into it; could earn freedoms; domestic slaves were generally treated well.
Aztecs:
Slaves included military prisoners and those sold by family; enjoyed some rights including ownership and familial rights.
Arab and Muslim Societies:
Slaves primarily non-Muslims; were expected to treat slaves humanely and convert them to Islam, which would free both slaves and future offspring.
African Societies:
Included prisoners of war; no strict distinctions between slaves and citizens; opportunities for social mobility.
Charles Bell
An African who was captured and enslaved and documented his experiences on a slave ship.
Impact of Atlantic Slave Trade on Africa
Societal Changes
Resulted in depopulation and increased conflicts.
Communities engaged in warfare to capture individuals for sale.
Shifted economies towards reliance on the slave trade rather than local industries.
Key Questions / Concepts
Significance of the Silk Road:
Facilitated the exchange of ideas, religions, and technologies.
Economically linked diverse empires to goods that were otherwise unavailable, i.e., silk, spices, and gold.
Created the first substantial connection between East and West, influencing political alliances and cultural exchanges.
Impact of First Wave Imperialism on Native Peoples of the Americas:
Lead to a massive demographic collapse, where up to 90\% of the indigenous population died from European diseases like smallpox and measles.
Resulted in the destruction of existing political systems (e.g., the Aztec and Incan Empires) and their replacement with colonial administrations.
Forced labor through the Encomienda system led to physical exhaustion and social fragmentation.
Cultural erasure occurred as indigenous religions and languages were suppressed in favor of Catholicism and Spanish/Portuguese.
Malinche's Role (Traitor, Victim, Heroine):
Perspectives vary; she was a victim of enslavement, a traitor to Aztecs from their view, yet a heroine for helping bridge cultures and aiding the Spanish conquest which may not have succeeded without her.
Cortes perceived as Quetzalcoatl:
Indigenous hesitance to fight against him due to cultural beliefs and the premonition of his identity.
European Exploitation of Atlantic Slave Trade in West Africa:
Europeans introduced manufactured goods and firearms, which sparked local conflicts as African kingdoms sought to capture neighbors to trade for weapons for survival.
Economic dependency shifted from local production and agriculture to a predatory economy based on human trafficking.
Depopulation of the most productive age groups (primarily aged 15-35) hindered internal development in African societies.
Fractured social cohesion and traditional tribal structures as fear and warfare became pervasive.