Ancient India

The modern-day countries of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh are located on a large peninsular landmass commonly referred to as the “subcontinent.” Separated from the rest of Asia by the highest mountains in the world (the Himalayan, Karakorum, and Kush ranges), the Indian subcontinent is part flat, fertile farmland, part dry plateau, and part coastal plains and rainforest. India’s climate is dictated by seasonal winds called monsoons. Winter brings dry winds from the inner continent, and summer brings moist air from the ocean.

One major river runs through the western portion of the continent, called the Indus River. This was the site of another major early civilization, sometimes called the Indus Valley civilization and sometimes called the Harappan civilization. This region lies within modern-day Pakistan and India. Like the earliest civilizations in Africa and western Asia, the earliest settlers to the Indus river valley were small groups who were able to cultivate crops, which grew into villages and eventually into major cities. These urban centers were well-established by 2600 BCE and boasted sophisticated plumbing, sewage, and sanitation systems. Ruins of ancient Harappan cities, like Harappa and Mohenjo-Dar, are neatly laid out in grids, suggesting the earliest evidence of urban planning

The people of the Harappan civilization were, like their contemporaries, predominantly polytheistic. They also appeared to venerate certain animals as sacred, a practice still seen in modern India. The Harappan people also developed a written language comprised of about 400 symbols, but it has yet to be decoded. These incredible cities were abandoned by 1900 BCE, likely due to drought or another natural cause.

Around 1000 BCE, a group called the Aryans moved onto the subcontinent from the northwest. The Aryans spoke a version of the Indo-European language, a common predecessor of several modern languages, including Hindi, English, Spanish, and Persian. The Aryans did not leave much behind, with one notable exception: a collection of religious texts called the Vedas. It is through these hymns, ritual instructions, and magical spells that we have an idea of how the Aryan civilization was set up and functioned.

The Aryans instituted a rigid caste system, or social hierarchy, based on occupation and skin color. At the top of the social pyramid were the Brahmins, or priests. Next were the Kshatriyas, warriors and rulers. Then came the Vaishyas, traders, and craftsmen. Finally, the the bottom of society, were the Shudras, or laborers. This system became more complicated over time, designating many, many subdivisions. The first major kingdom to arise from the Aryan settlements was that of Magadha, who by 321 BCE had conquered most of the subcontinent under the rule of Chandragupta Maurya. The Mauryan Empire was the largest empire the Indian subcontinent would ever see.

Maurya’s grandson, Asoka, was the last truly effective ruler of the empire and was also partially responsible for the spread of Buddhism throughout Asia. After Asoka’s death, the empire began to dissolve, and the subcontinent reverted to small kingdoms by 185 BCE. The subcontinent was once again united under an Indian dynasty starting in 320 CE with the Gupta Empire. During the 200 or so years of Gupta control, India experienced a Golden Age, or a time of cultural achievement, when many uniquely Indian styles of art, architecture, literature, dance, etc, emerged.