Untitled Flashcards Set
Flashcards for BIO 168 Final Exam
1. Major categories of biological macromolecules and examples
Q: What are the major categories of biological macromolecules?
A: Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids.
2. Mono-, di- vs. poly-saccharides
Q: What is the difference between monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides?
A:
Monosaccharides: Simple sugars (e.g., glucose).
Disaccharides: Two monosaccharides bonded (e.g., sucrose).
Polysaccharides: Long chains of monosaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen).
3. Directional terms
Q: What are common anatomical directional terms?
A: Superior, inferior, anterior, posterior, medial, lateral, proximal, distal, superficial, deep.
4. Movements at joints
Q: Name some types of joint movements.
A: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, circumduction, elevation, depression.
5. Parts of a neuron
Q: What are the parts of a neuron?
A: Dendrites, cell body, axon, axon terminals, myelin sheath.
6. Neuromuscular junction
Q: What occurs at the neuromuscular junction?
A: The motor neuron releases acetylcholine, stimulating muscle contraction.
7. Metabolism, anabolism, catabolism
Q: What is the difference between anabolism and catabolism?
A:
Anabolism: Building larger molecules from smaller ones (requires energy).
Catabolism: Breaking down larger molecules into smaller ones (releases energy).
8. Functional and structural classification of joints and examples
Q: What are the functional and structural classifications of joints?
A:
Functional: Synarthrosis (immovable), Amphiarthrosis (slightly movable), Diarthrosis (freely movable).
Structural: Fibrous, Cartilaginous, Synovial.
9. Anatomy vs. physiology
Q: What is the difference between anatomy and physiology?
A:
Anatomy: The study of structure.
Physiology: The study of function.
10. Different types of cells in the nervous system and functions
Q: What are the different types of cells in the nervous system?
A:
Neurons: Transmit electrical signals.
Glial cells: Support and protect neurons.
11. What are enzymes and how do they function?
Q: What are enzymes and how do they work?
A: Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy.
12. Structure of the integumentary system
Q: What is the structure of the integumentary system?
A: Skin, hair, nails, glands (sebaceous, sweat).
13. Differences in male and female skeleton
Q: What are the main skeletal differences between males and females?
A: Males generally have larger bones and narrower pelvises; females have a wider pelvis for childbirth.
14. Categories of glands
Q: What are the main categories of glands?
A: Exocrine (release substances via ducts) and endocrine (release hormones into the bloodstream).
15. What is homeostasis?
Q: What is homeostasis?
A: The maintenance of a stable internal environment in the body.
16. Levels of biological organization
Q: What are the levels of biological organization from simplest to most complex?
A: Atom, molecule, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism.
17. Two types of bone formation
Q: What are the two types of bone formation?
A: Endochondral ossification (replacement of cartilage by bone) and intramembranous ossification (direct formation of bone from mesenchyme).
18. Ear anatomy
Q: What are the main parts of the ear?
A: Outer ear (pinna, ear canal), middle ear (ossicles: malleus, incus, stapes), inner ear (cochlea, vestibular system).
19. How does hearing occur?
Q: How does hearing work?
A: Sound waves vibrate the eardrum, which causes the ossicles to move. The cochlea converts these vibrations into electrical signals that are sent to the brain.
20. Makeup of an atom
Q: What are the components of an atom?
A: Protons, neutrons, electrons.
21. Cation vs. anion
Q: What is the difference between a cation and an anion?
A:
Cation: Positively charged ion.
Anion: Negatively charged ion.
22. Functions of each system
Q: What are the main functions of the body’s organ systems?
A: Refer to previous card on system functions (see point 21).
23. Gray vs. white matter
Q: What is the difference between gray matter and white matter in the brain?
A:
Gray matter: Contains neuron cell bodies and processes information.
White matter: Contains myelinated axons that transmit signals.
24. How does nail production occur?
Q: Where is the nail produced?
A: In the nail matrix, where cells divide and keratinize to form the nail.
25. Neuron structure
Q: What are the parts of a neuron?
A: Dendrites, cell body, axon, axon terminals, myelin sheath.
26. Generation and propagation of action potentials
Q: How are action potentials generated?
A: Depolarization occurs when Na+ enters the neuron, followed by repolarization when K+ leaves. This wave of depolarization and repolarization travels down the axon.
27. Different types of bone cells
Q: What are the different types of bone cells?
A:
Osteoblasts: Build bone.
Osteocytes: Maintain bone.
Osteoclasts: Break down bone.
28. Functions of the internal brain and brain stem
Q: What are the functions of the brainstem?
A: Controls vital functions like breathing, heart rate, and digestion.
29. Types of sensory receptors
Q: What are the main types of sensory receptors?
A: Mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, nociceptors, photoreceptors, chemoreceptors.
30. Stages of mitosis
Q: What are the stages of mitosis?
A: Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis.
31. What is a reflex?
Q: What is a reflex?
A: An involuntary response to a stimulus.
32. Anatomy of a bone
Q: What are the main parts of a bone?
A: Epiphysis, diaphysis, periosteum, endosteum, articular cartilage.
33. Red vs. yellow marrow
Q: What is the difference between red and yellow bone marrow?
A:
Red marrow: Produces blood cells.
Yellow marrow: Stores fat.
34. How is vitamin D produced?
Q: How is vitamin D produced in the body?
A: UV light on the skin converts cholesterol into vitamin D, which is then activated in the liver and kidneys.
35. Body cavities
Q: What are the main body cavities?
A: Dorsal (cranial, spinal) and ventral (thoracic, abdominal, pelvic).
36. Body regions
Q: What are the main body regions?
A: Cephalic, cervical, thoracic, abdominal, pelvic, lumbar, gluteal, popliteal.
37. Types of major tissues, subcategories, and examples
Q: What are the four main tissue types and examples?
A: Epithelial (skin), connective (bone, blood), muscle (skeletal), nervous (neurons).
38. Bone identification
Q: How do you identify bones in the body?
A: Know key bones like the femur, tibia, skull, pelvis, scapula, etc.
39. Muscle identification
Q: What are major muscles to know?
A: Biceps, triceps, quadriceps, hamstrings, pectorals, latissimus dorsi.
40. Organization of nervous system
Q: What are the two main parts of the nervous system?
A: Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
41. Ligament vs. tendon
Q: What is the difference between a ligament and a tendon?
A:
Ligament: Connects bone to bone.
Tendon: Connects muscle to bone.
42. Cell organelles
Q: What are some key cell organelles?
A: Nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus.
43. Cranial nerve names and function
Q: What are the functions of the cranial nerves?
A: Know the names and functions of cranial nerves I-XII (e.g., olfactory for smell, optic for vision, vagus for parasympathetic control).
44. Meningeal layers
Q: What are the three layers of the meninges?
A: Dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater.
45. Regulation of calcium levels in the blood
Q: How is calcium regulated in the blood?
A: Parathyroid hormone increases calcium levels, and calcitonin decreases calcium levels.
46. Epidermal layers and function
Q: What are the layers of the epidermis?
A: Stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale.
47. Function of dermis
Q: What are the functions of the dermis?
A: Provides strength, houses sensory receptors, and contains blood vessels.
48. Sympathetic vs. parasympathetic systems
Q: What is the difference between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?
A:
Sympathetic: “Fight or flight,” activates stress responses.
Parasympathetic: “Rest and digest,” conserves energy.
49. How the inner ear senses balance
Q: How does the inner ear detect balance?
A: The vestibular system (semicircular canals and otolith organs) detects head movements and position.
50. Normal pH of blood
Q: What is the normal pH of blood?
A: 7.35 - 7.45.
51. Eye anatomy & How does vision occur?
Q: How does vision occur?
A: Light enters the cornea, passes through the lens, and is detected by photoreceptors in the retina.
52. Muscle contraction at the molecular level
Q: What happens at the molecular level during muscle contraction?
A: Actin and myosin slide past each other, powered by ATP.
53. Serous membranes
Q: What do serous membranes do?
A: They cover body organs and line body cavities, reducing friction.
54. Positive vs. negative feedback
Q: What is the difference between positive and negative feedback?
A:
Positive feedback: Stimulus is enhanced (e.g., childbirth).
Negative feedback: Stimulus is reduced to maintain balance (e.g., temperature regulation).
55. Axial vs. appendicular skeleton
Q: What are the axial and appendicular skeletons?
A:
Axial: Skull, vertebral column, rib cage.
Appendicular: Limbs and their attachments.
56. Categories of bone by shape
Q: What are the categories of bones by shape?
A: Long, short, flat, irregular.
57. Where are the sciatic, femoral, radial, and obturator nerves?
Q: Where are the sciatic, femoral, radial, and obturator nerves?
A:
Sciatic: Lower back to legs.
Femoral: Thigh.
Radial: Arm.
Obturator: Pelvis.
58. Types of muscle contractions
Q: What are the types of muscle contractions?
A: Isometric, isotonic, concentric, eccentric.
59. Reflex arc
Q: What are the steps of a reflex arc?
A: Stimulus → Sensory neuron → Integration center → Motor neuron → Effector.
60. Skin color
Q: What factors affect skin color?
A: Melanin, blood flow, carotene.
61. Special vs. general senses
Q: What are special vs. general senses?
A:
Special senses: Vision, hearing, taste, smell, balance.
General senses: Touch, pain, temperature, pressure.
62. Smell and taste
Q: How do smell and taste work?
A: Chemical receptors in the nose and mouth detect molecules and send signals to the brain.