Untitled Flashcards Set

1. Relationship Between Structure and Function

Key Concepts:

• Basic Biochemistry:

  • Atoms → Molecules → Macromolecules: Life is based on carbon (organic chemistry).

  • Four Major Macromolecules:

    1. Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides (glucose), disaccharides (sucrose), polysaccharides (starch, cellulose). Function: Energy storage (glycogen) and structural support (cellulose in plants).

    2. Lipids: Nonpolar (hydrophobic). Includes triglycerides (energy storage), phospholipids (cell membranes), steroids (cholesterol, hormones).

    3. Proteins: Made of amino acids. Functions: Enzymes (catalyze reactions), structural (collagen), transport (hemoglobin).

    4. Nucleic Acids: DNA (stores genetic info), RNA (transfers info for protein synthesis).

• Cell Biology:

  • Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes: Prokaryotes lack nuclei (bacteria); eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles (animal/plant cells).

  • Organelles & Functions:

    • Nucleus: DNA storage.

    • Mitochondria: ATP production (cellular respiration).

    • Chloroplasts: Photosynthesis (plants only).

    • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Rough ER (protein synthesis), Smooth ER (lipid synthesis).

    • Golgi Apparatus: Modifies/packages proteins.

    • Lysosomes: Digestive enzymes (autophagy).

• Biological Membranes:

  • Fluid Mosaic Model: Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins (transport, signaling).

  • Membrane Transport:

    • Passive (no energy): Diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion.

    • Active (requires ATP): Sodium-potassium pump, endocytosis/exocytosis.

2. Cellular and Acellular Replication

Key Concepts:

• Cell Cycle:

  • Interphase (G1, S, G2): Growth/DNA replication.

  • Mitosis (PMAT):

    1. Prophase: Chromosomes condense.

    2. Metaphase: Align at equator.

    3. Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate.

    4. Telophase: Nuclei reform.

  • Cytokinesis: Cytoplasm divides (cleavage furrow in animals; cell plate in plants).

• Regulation:

  • Checkpoints (G1, G2, M): Controlled by cyclins/CDKs. Mutations → cancer (uncontrolled division).

• DNA Replication:

  • Semi-Conservative: Each new DNA strand has one parent/template strand.

  • Enzymes: Helicase (unwinds), DNA polymerase (synthesizes), ligase (joins Okazaki fragments).

• Meiosis:

  • Produces gametes (haploid). Two divisions: Meiosis I (homologous pairs separate), Meiosis II (sister chromatids separate).

  • Genetic Variation: Crossing over (prophase I), independent assortment (metaphase I).

• Viral Replication:

  • Lytic Cycle: Virus replicates rapidly, lyses host (e.g., flu).

  • Lysogenic Cycle: Viral DNA integrates into host genome (e.g., HIV).

3. Energy Transformations

Key Concepts:

• Metabolism: Catabolism (breaks down molecules); anabolism (builds molecules).

• Cellular Respiration:

  • Glycolysis: Glucose → 2 pyruvate (2 ATP, 2 NADH).

  • Krebs Cycle: Pyruvate → CO2 (2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH₂).

  • ETC: Oxidative phosphorylation (~28 ATP). Total: ~32 ATP/glucose.

• Photosynthesis:

  • Light Reactions: Thylakoids; H₂O → O₂ + ATP + NADPH.

  • Calvin Cycle: Stroma; CO₂ → glucose (uses ATP/NADPH).

• Enzymes: Lower activation energy. Affected by pH/temperature (denaturation).

4. Gene Expression

Key Concepts:

• Protein Synthesis:

  • Transcription: DNA → mRNA (nucleus).

  • Translation: mRNA → protein (ribosome; tRNA brings amino acids).

• Regulation:

  • Operons (prokaryotes): Lac operon (inducible), Trp operon (repressible).

  • Eukaryotic Regulation: Transcription factors, epigenetics (methylation/acetylation).

• Mutations:

  • Point Mutations: Silent (no effect), missense (amino acid change), nonsense (stop codon).

  • Frameshift: Insertion/deletion alters reading frame.

5. Genetics and Inheritance

Key Concepts:

• Mendelian Inheritance:

  • Dominant/recessive alleles (Punnett squares).

  • Law of Segregation: Alleles separate during gamete formation.

  • Law of Independent Assortment: Traits inherited independently (unless linked).

• Non-Mendelian:

  • Incomplete Dominance: Blending (red + white = pink).

  • Codominance: Both alleles expressed (blood type AB).

  • Polygenic Traits: Multiple genes (skin height).

• DNA Technology: PCR, CRISPR, gel electrophoresis.

6. Evolution

Key Concepts:

• Natural Selection: Fitness = reproductive success.

• Mechanisms:

  • Microevolution: Genetic drift (bottleneck/founder effect), gene flow, mutations.

  • Macroevolution: Speciation (allopatric/sympatric), extinction.

• Evidence: Fossil record, homologous structures, molecular biology (DNA similarities).

7. Origin and Diversity of Life

Key Concepts:

• Phylogeny: Cladograms show evolutionary relationships.

• Domains: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya.

• Taxonomy: Kingdom → Phylum → Class → Order → Family → Genus → Species.

8. Ecology

Key Concepts:

• Biogeochemical Cycles: Carbon, nitrogen, water.

• Community Dynamics: Predation, competition, symbiosis (mutualism/parasitism).

9. Human Anatomy & Physiology

Key Concepts:

• Homeostasis: Negative feedback (e.g., insulin/glucagon).

• Organ Systems:

  • Nervous: Neurons transmit signals.

  • Circulatory: Heart pumps blood (O₂/CO₂ exchange).

10. Diseases (Focus: Malaria)

Key Concepts:

• Caused by Plasmodium (protozoan).

• Vector: Female Anopheles mosquito.

• Symptoms: Cyclic fever, anemia, organ failure.

• Treatment: Antimalarials (chloroquine); prevention via mosquito nets.

Exam Strategy

• Level 1/2 Questions (75%): Memorize definitions/processes.

• Level 3 Questions (25%): Practice hypothesis-based questions (use Campbell textbook).

• Time Management: Skip lengthy questions, return later.

Recommended Resources:

• Campbell Biology (detailed diagrams).

• Bozeman Science Videos (complex topics simplified).

Final Tip: For State, focus on Malaria, evolution, and experimental design.

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Ultra-Detailed UIL Biology Mastery Guide (2024-2025)

Objective: Total Conceptual Mastery for State Competition

1. Relationship Between Structure and Function

Atomic & Molecular Foundations

• Atoms: Smallest unit of matter (protons, neutrons, electrons).

  • Carbon (C): Forms 4 covalent bonds → backbone of organic molecules.

• Chemical Bonds:

  • Covalent: Strong (shared electrons; e.g., C-H in methane).

  • Ionic: Transfer of electrons (Na⁺Cl⁻).

  • Hydrogen: Weak, between polar molecules (H₂O bonds).

Macromolecules: Structure → Function

1. Carbohydrates:

   • Monosaccharides: Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆), fructose, galactose.

   • Disaccharides: Sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose).

   • Polysaccharides:

     • Starch (plants): α-glucose, energy storage.

     • Glycogen (animals): Branched α-glucose, liver/muscle storage.

     • Cellulose: β-glucose, plant cell walls (indigestible by humans).

2. Lipids:

   • Triglycerides: Glycerol + 3 fatty acids; saturated (no double bonds, solid) vs. unsaturated (double bonds, liquid).

   • Phospholipids: Amphipathic (hydrophilic head, hydrophobic tail); form bilayers in membranes.

   • Steroids: 4-ring structure; cholesterol (membrane fluidity), testosterone/estrogen (hormones).

3. Proteins:

   • Amino Acids: 20 types; linked by peptide bonds (dehydration synthesis).

   • Structure Levels:

     • Primary: Sequence of amino acids.

     • Secondary: α-helices/β-sheets (H-bonds).

     • Tertiary: 3D folding (disulfide bridges, hydrophobic interactions).

     • Quaternary: Multiple polypeptides (e.g., hemoglobin).

   • Enzymes: Biological catalysts (e.g., amylase); lower activation energy.

4. Nucleic Acids:

   • DNA: Double helix (A-T, C-G); stores genetic info.

   • RNA: Single-stranded (A-U, C-G); mRNA (transcript), tRNA (translation), rRNA (ribosomes).

Cell Biology: Organelles & Functions

Membrane Transport Mechanisms

• Passive Transport:

  • Simple Diffusion: Small/nonpolar (O₂, CO₂).

  • Facilitated Diffusion: Polar/charged (glucose via carrier proteins).

  • Osmosis: Water movement (hypotonic → hypertonic).

• Active Transport:

  • Primary: Na⁺/K⁺ pump (3 Na⁺ out, 2 K⁺ in per ATP).

  • Secondary: Cotransport (e.g., glucose + Na⁺ symport).

• Bulk Transport:

  • Endocytosis: Phagocytosis (solids), pinocytosis (liquids).

  • Exocytosis: Vesicle fusion (e.g., neurotransmitter release).

2. Cellular and Acellular Replication

Cell Cycle Regulation

• Cyclins & CDKs:

  • G1 Cyclin (D): Binds CDK4/6 → progression to S phase.

  • S Cyclin (E/A): Initiates DNA replication.

  • M Cyclin (B): Triggers mitosis.

• Checkpoints:

  • G1/S: Checks DNA damage, cell size.

  • G2/M: Ensures DNA replication completed.

  • Spindle (M): Verifies chromosome attachment.

DNA Replication Enzymes

Meiosis vs. Mitosis

Viral Replication Strategies

• Retroviruses (e.g., HIV):

  1. Reverse transcriptase converts RNA → DNA.

  2. Integrase inserts viral DNA into host genome (provirus).

• Bacteriophages (lytic cycle):

  • Attachment → DNA Injection → Replication → Assembly → Lysis.

3. Energy Transformations

Cellular Respiration (Aerobic)

1. Glycolysis (Cytoplasm):

   • Input: 1 glucose → Output: 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP (net), 2 NADH.

   • Key Enzymes: Hexokinase (glucose → G6P), phosphofructokinase-1 (rate-limiting).

2. Pyruvate Oxidation (Mitochondria):

   • Pyruvate → Acetyl-CoA + CO₂ + NADH.

3. Krebs Cycle (Matrix):

   • Per glucose: 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH₂, 4 CO₂.

4. ETC (Inner Membrane):

   • NADH/FADH₂ donate e⁻ → O₂ final acceptor → H₂O.

   • Chemiosmosis: Proton gradient drives ATP synthase (~28 ATP).

Photosynthesis (Light vs. Dark Reactions)

• Light Reactions (Thylakoids):

  • PSII: Splits H₂O → O₂; e⁻ passed to ETC → proton gradient.

  • PSI: NADP⁺ + H⁺ → NADPH.

• Calvin Cycle (Stroma):

  • Rubisco fixes CO₂ → 3-PGA → G3P (3 cycles → 1 G3P).

  • Inputs: 9 ATP, 6 NADPH per 3 CO₂.

4. Gene Expression

Transcription Steps

1. Initiation: RNA polymerase binds promoter (TATA box in eukaryotes).

2. Elongation: Adds RNA nucleotides (A-U, C-G).

3. Termination: Poly-A signal (eukaryotes) or terminator sequence (prokaryotes).

Post-Transcriptional Modifications (Eukaryotes)

• 5’ Cap: 7-methylguanosine (protects mRNA, aids ribosome binding).

• 3’ Poly-A Tail: Stabilizes mRNA.

• Splicing: Introns removed by spliceosome; exons joined.

Translation (Ribosome Sites)

• A Site: Incoming tRNA.

• P Site: Growing polypeptide.

• E Site: Exit tRNA.

5. Genetics Problems

Dihybrid Cross (9:3:3:1 Ratio)

• Example: Cross AaBb × AaBb → 9 A_B_, 3 A_bb, 3 aaB_, 1 aabb.

Linked Genes

• Recombination Frequency: <50% (closer genes = fewer crossovers).

6. Evolution Evidence

• Homologous Structures: Common ancestry (e.g., whale flipper/human arm).

• Vestigial Traits: Non-functional remnants (e.g., appendix).

10. Malaria Deep Dive

• Life Cycle:

  1. Mosquito Vector: Plasmodium sporozoites injected into human.

  2. Liver Stage: Sporozoites → merozoites (asexual reproduction).

  3. Blood Stage: Merozoites infect RBCs → cyclic fevers.

  4. Gametocytes: Taken up by mosquito → sexual reproduction.

• Drug Resistance: Chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum (mutations in PfCRT gene).