Contemporary Global Realignments, 1914 to the Present - In Depth Notes

Page 1

Communalism and Pakistan's Formation

• In August 1946, the Muslim League summoned a Day of Direct Action, anticipating possible violence between Muslims and Hindus during independence negotiations with the British.

• The resulting unrest led to the Great Calcutta Killing, resulting in approximately 6,000 deaths. Muhammad Ali Jinnah argued that the only solution to India’s problems was the creation of Pakistan.

Partition and Violence

• The partition of India into separate Hindu and Muslim states contradicted the principles upheld by leaders like Gandhi and Nehru, who reluctantly accepted the idea of division.

• Gandhi condemned partition as a “vivisection” of the country, predicting violence and bloodshed. Consequently, mass migrations of refugees occurred, with estimates of 10 million people displaced and casualties between 500,000 and 1 million.

• The emergence of Hindu Muslim enmity complicated the development of both India and Pakistan.

Impact on Decolonization

• Indian independence every historical significance in the context of decolonization, serving as a catalyst for anti-imperial movements across Asia and Africa.

• Nehru advocated for a nonalignment strategy, promoting independence while avoiding allegiance with either the U.S. or the Soviet Union, notably articulated at the Bandung Conference in 1955.

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The Nonaligned Movement

• The Bandung Conference of 1955 was fundamentally a discussion on nonalignment among newly independent Asian and African nations, seeking a “third path” free from U.S. or Soviet influence.

• The Nonaligned Movement aimed for neutrality during the Cold War but often suffered from disunity as member states had varying levels of allegiance to superpowers.

Vietnam’s National Struggles

• Vietnam struggled to separate its fight for independence from Cold War dynamics, initially battling for liberation from French colonial control. Ho Chi Minh leveraged wartime conditions to push for independence and issued a Vietnamese Declaration of Independence post-World War II.

• Despite initial successes against the Japanese, France aimed to reclaim its power in Vietnam, leading to a brutal conflict, with the Viet Minh using guerrilla tactics against French forces and gaining strength after receiving aid from newly communist China.

The Geneva Conference

• The Geneva Conference (1954) temporarily divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel, establishing North Vietnam under Ho Chi Minh’s communist government and South Vietnam under non-communist control. U.S. support for South Vietnam followed, as elections were avoided, ultimately leading to the Vietnam War.

Page 3

Decolonization in Asia

• The decolonization process in Asia accelerated quickly post-World War II, with various nations achieving independence from colonial powers, significantly marked by the fall of British, French, and Dutch empires in the region.

• The map indicates various timelines for independence among several Asian nations, reflecting the diverse outcomes from colonization.

Page 4

Vietnam's 'American War'

• Discontent with the South Vietnamese government led to the formation of the National Liberation Front (NLF), including guerrilla fighters supported by North Vietnam.

• U.S. intervention escalated in 1965, culminating in military involvement that faced significant challenges against guerrilla warfare tactics and popular support for NLF.

Vietnamese Victory and Aftermath

• Increasing anti-war sentiment in the U.S. prompted changes in policy, including troop withdrawal. The Vietnam War officially ended in 1975 with Northern victory and reunification in 1976.

The Palestine Issue in the Arab National States

• Except for Palestine, Arab states gained independence post-World War II with challenges stemming from historical mandates that complicated independent governance.

Page 5

The Problem of Palestine

• Following the Balfour Declaration, conflicting British promises to both Jews and Palestinians led to tensions and violence.

• In 1947, the UN proposed partitioning Palestine into separate Arab and Jewish states but met with resistance from Arab nations, leading to the 1948 civil war and eventual declaration of independence by Israel.

Page 6

Arab Nationalism and Nasser

• Nasser became emblematic of Arab nationalism, employing rhetoric against Israel and imperial influences while promoting military reform in Egypt post-independence. His influential role rose during the Suez Crisis (1956), where attempts to nationalize the Suez Canal led to a military intervention by Britain, France, and Israel, which failed due to strong U.S. opposition.

Page 7

Decolonization in Africa

• The struggle for independence in Africa was marked by both violence and peaceful protests, with various nations achieving autonomy at different paces.

• Internal divisions often complicated the process, as seen in Algeria’s violent struggle against French colonizers.

Algeria's Independence

• The Algerian War of Independence (1954-1962) faced fierce resistance from France, leading to internal conflict marked by violence, terror, and large casualties.

• The work of Frantz Fanon became influential, advocating for violent uprising as a means to freedom.

Page 8

African Nationalism and Independence

• During the pre-World War II era, African nationalists celebrated their identity amid European colonial rule, furthered by the Négritude movement that espoused pride in African culture.

• Ghana emerged as a prominent nation in this context, achieving independence from Britain in 1957, serving as a model for subsequent African nations.

Page 9

Struggles in Kenya

• The fight for independence was not uniform; in Kenya, the violent Mau Mau uprising sought to reclaim agrarian rights from British settlers faced severe military repression that resulted in significant loss of life.

Mandela and Apartheid

• South Africa's struggle against apartheid exemplified enduring internal colonialism, striving for radical changes against a white-dominated system, culminating in widespread rebellions and eventual political transformation post-1989.

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The End of Apartheid

• Nelson Mandela’s leadership, alongside F. W. de Klerk, ultimately dismantled apartheid, establishing a multi-racial democracy in post-apartheid South Africa in 1994.

Page 11

Postcolonial Political Dynamics

• Newly independent nations often faced instability due to lingering imperial influences, struggling between democratic governance and authoritarian rule.

Page 12

Communist and Democratic Dynamics in Asia

• In Asia, Mao Zedong’s adaptation of communism significantly shaped the trajectories of newly independent nations, emphasizing industrialization and collective agriculture.

• Successes alternated with social turmoil during the Cultural Revolution, while comparisons with other developing nations illustrate stark political differences.

Page 13

Democracy in India

• India maintained a democratic system amidst challenges that many developing nations faced, with leadership transitions still striving towards governance despite regional tensions.

Page 14

Islamism and Global Contexts

• The Islamic resurgence in the late twentieth century represented a rejection of Western influences, showcasing varied responses, from peaceful advocacy to radical extremist actions, particularly noticeable during the Iranian Revolution.

• Nationalist Struggles in Vietnam

  • Vietnam's independence entangled with Cold War dynamics, particularly against French colonialism.

  • Ho Chi Minh sought independence through leveraging wartime conditions and guerrilla tactics against French forces.

• Arab National States and the Problem in Palestine

  • Conflicting British promises post-Balfour Declaration led to tensions and violence.

  • 1947 UN proposal to partition Palestine met resistance from Arab nations, leading to the 1948 civil war and Israel's declaration of independence.

• Communism and Democracy in Asia

  • Mao Zedong's adaptation of communism significantly influenced newly independent nations, prioritizing industrialization and collective agriculture despite social unrest.

• Islamic Resurgence in Southwest Asia and North Africa

  • Late 20th-century Islamic resurgence showcased varied responses to Western influence, from peaceful advocacy to radical actions, notably during the Iranian Revolution.

• Colonial Legacies in Sub-Saharan Africa

  • Struggles for independence in Africa characterized by both violence and protests, leading to varied outcomes and timelines for autonomy.

• Internal Colonialism in South Africa

  • South Africa faced a struggle against apartheid, representing enduring internal colonialism with extensive rebellions and political transformation after 1989.

• Ho Chi Minh

  • Leader of Vietnamese nationalism and communist efforts, significant for leveraging conditions for independence in Vietnam.

• Viet Minh

  • Resistance movement against French colonial rule, employing guerrilla tactics and gaining strength from communist support.

• NFL (Viet Cong)

  • Guerrilla fighters supported by North Vietnam against South Vietnamese government; played a pivotal role in the Vietnam War.

• Creation of Israel

  • Established in 1948 post-UN partition proposal, leading to prolonged conflict with Arab states.

• Gamal Abdel Nasser

  • Prominent leader of Arab nationalism, known for opposing imperialism and reforming Egypt post-independence, especially notable during the Suez Crisis.

• Suez Crisis

  • Nasser's attempt to nationalize the Suez Canal (1956) met with military intervention by Britain, France, and Israel, ultimately failing due to U.S. opposition.

• Cultural Revolution

  • Mao's campaign in China aimed at purging remnants of capitalist and traditional elements; resulted in widespread social upheaval.

• Tiananmen

  • 1989 protests in China demanding political reform, which were suppressed violently by the government.

• Indira Gandhi

  • Indian Prime Minister known for significant political decisions, including the declaration of a state of emergency in the 1970s.

• PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization)

  • Established to advocate for Palestinian nationalism and aimed to reclaim land and rights for the Palestinian people.

• Ayatollah Khomeini

  • Leader of the Iranian Revolution, opposing Western influences and establishing an Islamic Republic in Iran post-1979.

• Apartheid

  • A system of institutionalized racial segregation in South Africa, characterized by significant internal resistance and eventual political transformation leading to democracy in 1994.