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Study Guide for Mid-term Exam
Introduction—Chapter 1
Understand the following concepts:
common goods- goods that all people may use but that are of limited supply
democracy- a form of government where political power rests in the hands of the people
direct democracy- a form of government where people participate directly in making government decisions instead of choosing representatives to do this for them
elite theory- claims political power rests in the hands of a small, elite group of people
government- the means by which a society organizes itself and allocates authority in
order to accomplish collective goals
ideology- the beliefs and ideals that help to shape political opinion and eventually policy
intense preferences- beliefs and preferences based on strong feelings regarding an issue that someone
adheres to over time
latent preferences- beliefs and preferences people are not deeply committed to and that change over time
majority rule- a fundamental principle of democracy; the majority should have the power to make decisions binding upon the whole
minority rights- protections for those who are not part of the majority
monarchy- a form of government where one ruler, usually a hereditary one, holds political power
oligarchy- a form of government where a handful of elite society members hold political power
partisanship- strong support, or even blind allegiance, for a particular political party
pluralist theory- claims political power rests in the hands of groups of people
political power- influence over a government’s institutions, leadership, or policies
politics- the process by which we decide how resources will be allocated and which policies government will pursue
private goods- goods provided by private businesses that can be used only by those who pay for them
public goods- goods provided by government that anyone can use and that are available to all without charge
representative democracy- a form of government where voters elect representatives to make decisions and pass laws on behalf of all the people instead of allowing people to vote directly on laws
social capital- connections with others and the willingness to interact and aid them
toll good- a good that is available to many people but is used only by those who can pay the price to do so
totalitarianism- a form of government where government is all-powerful and citizens have no rights
The Constitution—Chapter 2
Anti-Federalists- those who did not support ratification of the Constitution
Articles of Confederation- the first basis for the new nation’s government; adopted in 1781; created an alliance of sovereign states held together by a weak central government
bicameral legislature- a legislature with two houses, such as the U.S. Congress
Bill of Rights- the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution; most were designed to protect fundamental rights and liberties
checks and balances- a system that allows one branch of government to limit the exercise of power by another branch; requires the different parts of government to work together
confederation- a highly decentralized form of government; sovereign states form a union for purposes such as mutual defense
Declaration of Independence- a document written in 1776 in which the American colonists proclaimed their independence from Great Britain and listed their grievances against the British king
enumerated powers- the powers given explicitly to the federal government by the Constitution (Article I, Section 8); power to regulate interstate and foreign commerce, raise and support armies, declare war, coin money, and conduct foreign affairs
federal system- a form of government in which power is divided between state governments and a national government
Federalists- those who supported ratification of the Constitution
Great Compromise- a compromise between the Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan that created a twohouse Congress; representation based on population in the House of Representatives and equal representation of states in the Senate
natural rights- the right to life, liberty, and property; believed to be given by God; no government may take away
New Jersey Plan- a plan that called for a one-house national legislature; each state would receive one vote
republic- a form of government in which political power rests in the hands of the people, not a monarch, and is exercised by elected representatives
reserved powers- any powers not prohibited by the Constitution or delegated to the national government; powers reserved to the states and denied to the federal government
separation of powers- the sharing of powers among three separate branches of government
social contract- an agreement between people and government in which citizens consent to be governed so long as the government protects their natural rights
supremacy clause- the statement in Article VI of the Constitution that federal law is superior to laws passed by state legislatures
The Federalist Papers- a collection of eighty-five essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay in support of ratification of the Constitution
Three-Fifths Compromise- a compromise between northern and southern states that called for counting of all a state’s free population and 60 percent of its slave population for both federal taxation and representation in Congress
unicameral legislature- a legislature with only one house, like the Confederation Congress or the legislature proposed by the New Jersey Plan
veto- the power of the president to reject a law proposed by Congress
Virginia Plan- a plan for a two-house legislature; representatives would be elected to the lower house based on each state’s population; representatives for the upper house would be chosen by the lower house
Article One - the Legislative BranchThe supremacy of the people through their elected representatives is recognized in Article I, which creates a Congress consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The positioning of Congress at the beginning of the Constitution affirms its status as the “First Branch” of the federal government.
Article Two - The Executive Branch Under Article II of the Constitution, the President is responsible for the execution and enforcement of the laws created by Congress. Fifteen executive departments — each led by an appointed member of the President's Cabinet — carry out the day-to-day administration of the federal government.
Article Three - The Judiciary Branch, guarantees that every person accused of wrongdoing has the right to a fair trial before a competent judge and a jury of one's peers.
Article Four - National Unity, outlines the relationship between the various states, as well as the relationship between each state and the United States federal government. It also empowers Congress to admit new states and administer the territories and other federal lands.
Article Five - the amendment process, describes the process for altering the Constitution. Under Article Five, the process to alter the Constitution consists of proposing an amendment or amendments, and subsequent ratification
Article Six - Supremacy, All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation.
Article Seven - Ratification, The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.
Federalism Module—Chapter 3
Federalism- an institutional arrangement that creates two relatively autonomous levels of government, each possessing the capacity to act directly on the people with authority granted by the national constitution
Unitary System- a centralized system of government in which the subnational government is dependent on the central government, where substantial authority is concentrated
Confederation- Constitutional arrangement in which sovereign nations or states, by compact, create a central government but carefully limit its power and do not give it direct authority over individuals.
Express Powers- Powers the Constitution specifically grants to one of the branches of the national government.
Article 1, Section 8- Necessary and proper clause, setting forth the implied powers of Congress. It states that Congress, in addition to its express powers has the right to make all laws necessary and proper to carry out all powers the Constitution vests in the national government.
Implied Powers- Powers inferred from the express powers that allow Congress to carry out its functions.
Necessary & Proper Clause- Clause of the Constitution (Article 1, Section 8, Clause 3)
setting forth the implied powers of Congress. It states that Congress, in addition to its express powers has the right to make all laws necessary and proper to carry out all powers the Constitution vests in the national government.
Reserved Powers- powers that are neither prohibited nor explicitly given by law to any organ of government. Such powers, as well as general power of competence, are given because it is impractical to detail in legislation every act allowed to be carried out by the state.
Tenth Amendment- The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.
Police Powers- The most basic powers of the state governments to make laws to protect the health, safety, morals, and welfare of the community.
Article IV - Rules regulating the relations between states
Full Faith & Credit- found in Article IV, Section 1, of the Constitution, this clause requires states to accept court decisions, public acts, and contracts of other states; also referred to as the comity provision
Privileges & Immunities- found in Article IV, Section 2, of the Constitution, this clause prohibits states from discriminating against out-of-staters by denying such guarantees as access to courts, legal protection, and property and travel rights
State Rights- the political rights and powers granted to the states of the United States by the U.S. Constitution.
McCulloch v. Maryland- Congress had implied powers under the Necessary and Proper Clause of Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution to create the Second Bank of the United States and that the state of Maryland lacked the power to tax the Bank.
Article VI - The Supremacy Clause- establishes that the federal constitution, and federal law generally, take precedence over state laws, and even state constitutions.
Dual Federalism- a style of federalism in which the states and national government exercise exclusive authority in distinctly delineated spheres of jurisdiction, creating a layer-cake view of federalism
Cooperative Federalism- a style of federalism in which both levels of government coordinate their actions to solve national problems, leading to the blending of layers as in a marble cake
Block Grants- a type of grant that comes with less stringent federal administrative conditions and provide recipients more latitude over how to spend grant funds
Categorical Grants- a federal transfer formulated to limit recipients’ discretion in the use of funds and subject them to strict administrative criteria
Bill of attainder- a legislative action declaring someone guilty without a trial; prohibited under the Constitution
Concurrent powers- shared state and federal powers that range from taxing, borrowing, and making and enforcing laws to establishing court systems
Devolution- a process in which powers from the central government in a unitary system are delegated to subnational units
Elastic clause- the last clause of Article I, Section 8, which enables the national government “to make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying” out all its constitutional responsibilities
Ex post facto law-a law that criminalizes an act retroactively; prohibited under the Constitution
General revenue sharing-a type of federal grant that places minimal restrictions on how state and local governments spend the money
New federalism-a style of federalism premised on the idea that the decentralization of policies enhances administrative efficiency, reduces overall public spending, and improves outcomes
Privileges and immunities clause-found in Article IV, Section 2, of the Constitution, this clause prohibits states from discriminating against out-of-staters by denying such guarantees as access to courts, legal protection, and property and travel rights
Unfunded mandates- federal laws and regulations that impose obligations on state and local governments without fully compensating them for the costs of implementation
Venue shopping- a strategy in which interest groups select the level and branch of government they calculate will be most receptive to their policy goals
Writ of habeas corpus- a petition that enables someone in custody to petition a judge to determine whether that person’s detention is legal
Congress Module—Chapter 11
Functions of Congress
Reapportionment- the redistribution of seats in the U.S. House of Representatives based on changes in population.
Redistricting- Every ten years, local governments use new census data to redraw their district lines to reflect how local populations have changed.
Gerrymandering- practice of setting boundaries of electoral districts to favor specific political interests within legislative bodies, often resulting in districts with convoluted, winding boundaries rather than compact areas.
Constituency- citizens whom a legislator has been elected to represent.
House & Senate Differences- Senators represent their entire states, but members of the House represent individual districts. The number of districts in each state is determined by a state's population. Each state has a minimum of one representative in Congress.
Bicameralism- type of legislature, one divided into two separate assemblies, chambers, or houses, known as a bicameral legislature.
Senate size- currently has 100 Members
House of Representatives Size- 435 voting
House of Representatives terms- Representatives must be 25 years old and must have been U.S. citizens for at least 7 years. Representatives serve 2-year terms.
Senate terms- Senators are elected to six-year terms, and every two years the members of one class—approximately one-third of the senators—face election or reelection.
Filibustering- A procedural practice in the Senate whereby a senator refuses to relinquish the floor and thereby delays proceedings and prevents a vote on a controversial issue.
Cloture- A procedure for terminating debate, especially filibusters, in the Senate.
Enumerated powers- The powers expressly given to Congress in the Constitution.
Inherent powers- The powers of the national government in foreign affairs that the Supreme Court has declared do not depend on constitutional grants but rather grow out of the very existence of the national government.
Trustee model- An official who is expected to vote independently based on his or her judgment of the circumstances; one interpretation of the role of the legislator.
Delegate model- An official who is expected to represent the views of his or her constituents even when personally holding different views; one interpretation of the role of legislator.
Politico model- Role played by elected representatives who act as trustees or as delegates, depending on the issue. divided government.
Descriptive representation- the extent to which a body of representatives represents the descriptive characteristics of their constituencies, such as class, race, ethnicity, and gender
Surge-and-decline theory- a theory proposing that the surge of stimulation occurring during presidential elections subsides during midterm elections, accounting for the differences we observe in turnouts and results
The Speaker of the House- presiding officer of the House and is charged with numerous duties and responsibilities by law and by the House rules. As the presiding officer of the House, the Speaker maintains order, manages its proceedings, and governs the administration of its business.
Majority Leader- the head of the majority party in a legislative body, especially the US Senate or House of Representatives.
Majority Whip- Party leader who is the liaison between the leadership and the rank-and-file in the legislature.
Minority Leader- the head of the minority party in a legislative body, especially the US Senate or House of Representatives.
Minority Whip- Party leader who is the liaison between the leadership and the rank-and-file in the legislature
The President of the Senate- Vice President of the United States
President Pro Tempe- a high-ranking senator of the majority party who presides over the US Senate in the absence of the vice president.
Majority Floor Leader- A legislative position held by an important party member in the House of Representatives. The majority leader is selected by the majority party in caucus or conference to foster cohesion among party members and to act as spokesperson for the majority party in the House. Representation.
Majority Whip- an elected member of the majority party who assists the Speaker of the House and the majority leader to coordinate ideas on, and garner support for, proposed legislation.
Minority Leader- the head of the minority party in a legislative body, especially the US Senate or House of Representatives.
Minority Leader, Minority Whip- In both the House and the Senate, the minority whip is the second highest-ranking individual in the minority party (the party with the lesser number of legislators in a legislative body), outranked only by the minority leader.
Committee Structure- an association of people set up to arrive at solutions to common problems. The line people are given opportunities to discuss their problems in the committee.
Standing Committees- a permanent committee. especially : one in a house or senate with jurisdiction over legislation in a particular area (as the judiciary or the armed services)
Joint Committees- a committee whose members are from two or more different organizations, or from both chambers of a bicameral legislative body (such as the US Congress).
Conference Committees- a temporary joint committee created to settle differences in versions of a bill passed by each house of Congress.
Ad hoc, special or select Committee- A select or special committee of the United States Congress is a congressional committee appointed to perform a special function that is beyond the authority or capacity of a standing committee.
Pork Barrel- the use of government funds for projects designed to please voters or legislators and win votes
Committee Chairs- the member of congress responsible for running a committee, who can have great influence over the committee agenda and, by extension, the legislative process.
Bill- Bills from each house are assigned a number in the order in which they are introduced, starting at the beginning of each Congress (first and second sessions).
Cloture- (in a legislative assembly) a procedure for ending a debate and taking a vote.
Presidential Action- is a written or oral instruction or declaration issued by the president of the United States, which may draw upon the powers vested in the president by the U.S. Constitution, statutory law, or, in certain cases, congressional and judicial acquiescence.
Markup- The process by which congressional committees and subcommittees debate, amend, and rewrite proposed legislation.
Political Behavior Module (Chapters 6, 7, 9, & 10)
Public Opinion—Chapter 6
agent of political socialization- through use of information a person or entity that teaches and influences others about politics
bandwagon effect- increased media coverage of candidates who poll high
Bradley effect- the difference between a poll result and an election result in which voters gave a socially desirable poll response rather than a true response that might be perceived as racist
classical liberalism- a political ideology based on belief in individual liberties and rights and the idea of free will, with little role for government
communism- a political and economic system in which, in theory, government promotes common ownership of all property, means of production, and materials to prevent the exploitation of workers while creating an equal society; in practice, most communist governments have used force to maintain control
covert content- ideologically slanted information presented as unbiased information in order to influence public opinion
diffuse- support the widespread belief that a country and its legal system are legitimate
exit poll- an election poll taken by interviewing voters as they leave a polling place
fascism- a political system of total control by the ruling party or political leader over the economy, the military, society, and culture and often the private lives of citizens
favorability poll- a public opinion poll that measures a public’s positive feelings about a candidate or politician
heuristics- shortcuts or rules of thumb for decision making
horserace coverage- day-to-day media coverage of candidate performance in the election
leading question- a question worded to lead a respondent to give a desired answer
margin of error- a number that states how far the poll results may be from the actual preferences of the total population of citizens
modern conservatism- a political ideology that prioritizes individual liberties, preferring a smaller government that stays out of the economy
modern liberalism- a political ideology focused on equality and supporting government intervention in society and the economy if it promotes equality
overt content- political information whose author makes clear that only one side is presented
political culture- the prevailing political attitudes and beliefs within a society or region
political elite- a political opinion leader who alerts the public to changes or problems
political socialization- the process of learning the norms and practices of a political system through others and societal institutions
public opinion- a collection of opinions of an individual or a group of individuals on a topic, person, or event
push poll- politically biased campaign information presented as a poll in order to change minds
random sample- a limited number of people from the overall population selected in such a way that each has an equal chance of being chosen
representative sample- a group of respondents demographically similar to the population of interest
socialism- a political and economic system in which government uses its authority to promote social and economic equality, providing everyone with basic services and equal opportunities and requiring citizens with more wealth to contribute more
straw poll- an informal and unofficial election poll conducted with a non-random population
theory of delegate representation- a theory that assumes the politician is in office to be the voice of the people and to vote only as the people want
traditional conservatism- a political ideology supporting the authority of the monarchy and the church in the belief that government provides the rule of law
Voting and Elections—Chapter 7
ballot fatigue- the result when a voter stops voting for offices and initiatives at the bottom of a long ballot
caucus- a form of candidate nomination that occurs in a town-hall style format rather than a day-long election; usually reserved for presidential elections
chronic minority- voters who belong to political parties that tend not to be competitive in national elections because they are too small to become a majority or because of the Electoral College system distribution in their state
closed primary- an election in which only voters registered with a party may vote for that party’s candidates
coattail effect- the result when a popular presidential candidate helps candidates from his or her party win their own elections
delegates- party members who are chosen to represent a particular candidate at the party’s state- or national-level nominating convention
district system- the means by which electoral votes are divided between candidates based on who wins districts and/or the state
early voting- an accommodation that allows voting up to two weeks before Election Day
Electoral College- the constitutionally created group of individuals, chosen by the states, with the responsibility of formally selecting the next U.S. president
incumbency advantage- the advantage held by officeholders that allows them to often win reelection
incumbent- the current holder of a political office
initiative- law or constitutional amendment proposed and passed by the voters and subject to review by the state courts; also called a proposition
midterm elections- the congressional elections that occur in the even-numbered years between presidential election years, in the middle of the president’s term
open primary- an election in which any registered voter may vote in any party’s primary or caucus
platform- the set of issues important to the political party and the party delegates
political action committees (PACs)- organizations created to raise money for political campaigns and spend money to influence policy and politics
recall- the removal of a politician or government official by the voters
referendum- a yes or no vote by citizens on a law or candidate proposed by the state government
residency requirement- the stipulation that citizen must live in a state for a determined period of time before a citizen can register to vote as a resident of that state
shadow campaign- a campaign run by political action committees and other organizations without the coordination of the candidate
straight-ticket voting- the practice of voting only for candidates from the same party
super PACs- officially known as Independent Expenditure-Only Committees; organizations that can fundraise and spend as they please to support or attack a candidate but not contribute directly to a candidate or strategize with a candidate’s campaign
top-two primary- a primary election in which the two candidates with the most votes, regardless of party, become the nominees for the general election
voter fatigue- the result when voters grow tired of voting and stay home from the polls
voting-age population- the number of citizens over eighteen
voting-eligible population- the number of citizens eligible to vote
winner-take-all system- all electoral votes for a state are given to the candidate who wins the most votes in that state
Political Parties—Chapter 9
bipartisanship- a process of cooperation through compromise
critical election- an election that represents a sudden, clear, and long-term shift in voter allegiances
divided government- a condition in which one or more houses of the legislature is controlled by the party in opposition to the executive
first-past-the-post- a system in which the winner of an election is the candidate who wins the greatest number of votes cast, also known as plurality voting
gerrymandering- the manipulation of legislative districts in an attempt to favor a particular candidate
majoritarian voting- a type of election in which the winning candidate must receive at least 50 percent of the votes, even if a run-off election is required
majority party- the legislative party with over half the seats in a legislative body, and thus significant power to control the agenda
minority party- the legislative party with less than half the seats in a legislative body
moderate- an individual who falls in the middle of the ideological spectrum
party identifiers- individuals who represent themselves in public as being part of a party
party organization- the formal structure of the political party and the active members responsible for coordinating party behavior and supporting party candidates
party platform- the collection of a party’s positions on issues it considers politically important
party polarization- the shift of party positions from moderate towards ideological extremes
party realignment- a shifting of party alliances within the electorate
party-in-government- party identifiers who have been elected to office and are responsible for fulfilling the party’s promises
party-in-the-electorate- members of the voting public who consider themselves part of a political party or who consistently prefer the candidates of one party over the other
personal politics- a political style that focuses on building direct relationships with voters rather than on promoting specific issues
plurality voting- the election rule by which the candidate with the most votes wins, regardless of vote share
political machine- an organization that secures votes for a party’s candidates or supports the party in other ways, usually in exchange for political favors such as a job in government
political parties- organizations made up of groups of people with similar interests that try to directly influence public policy through their members who seek and hold public office
precinct- the lowest level of party organization, usually organized around neighborhoods
proportional representation- a party-based election rule in which the number of seats a party receives is a function of the share of votes it receives in an election
reapportionment- the reallocation of House seats between the states to account for population changes
redistricting- the redrawing of electoral maps
safe seat- a district drawn so members of a party can be assured of winning by a comfortable margin
sorting- the process in which voters change party allegiances in response to shifts in party position
third parties- political parties formed as an alternative to the Republican and Democratic parties, also known as minor parties
two-party system- a system in which two major parties win all or almost all elections
Interest Groups—Chapter 10
association- groups of companies or institutions that organize around a common set of concerns, often within a given industry or trade
astroturf movement- a political movement that resembles a grassroots movement but is often supported or facilitated by wealthy interests and/or elites
Citizens United- Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission was a 2010 Supreme Court case that granted corporations and unions the right to spend unlimited amounts of money on elections
collective good- a good such as public safety or clean air, often produced by government, that is generally available to the population as a whole
contract lobbyist- a lobbyist who works for a contract lobbying firm that represents clients before government
disturbance theory- the theory that an external event can lead to interest group mobilization
efficacy- the belief that you make a difference and that government cares about you and your views
elite critique- the proposition that wealthy and elite interests are advantaged over those without resources
fragmentation- the result when a large interest group develops diverging needs
free rider problem- the situation that occurs when some individuals receive benefits (get a free ride) without helping to bear the cost
grassroots movement- a political movement that often begins from the bottom up, inspired by average citizens concerned about a given issue
in-house lobbyist- an employee or executive within an organization who works as a lobbyist on behalf of the organization
inside lobbying- the act of contacting and taking the organization’s message directly to lawmakers in an attempt to influence policy
iron triangle- three-way relationship among congressional committees, interests groups, and the bureaucracy
issue network- a group of interest groups and people who work together to support a particular issue or policy
legislative liaison- a person employed by a governmental entity such as a local government, executive department, or university to represent the organization before the legislature
lobbyist- a person who represents an organization before government in an attempt to influence policy
material incentives- substantive monetary or physical benefits given to group members to help overcome collective action problems
membership organization- an interest group that usually consists of dues-paying members who organize around a particular cause or issue
neopluralis-t a person who suggests that all groups’ access and influence depend on the political environment
outside lobbying- the act of lobbying indirectly by taking the organization’s message to the public, often through the use of the media and/or by issue press releases, in hopes that the public will then put pressure on lawmakers
particularized benefit- a benefit that generally accrues to a narrow segment of society
pluralist- a person who believes many groups healthily compete for access to decision-makers
public interest group- an interest group that seeks a public good, which is something that accrues to all
purposive incentives- benefits to overcome collective action problems that appeal to people’s support of the issue or cause
revolving door laws- laws that require a cooling-off period before government officials can register to lobby after leaving office
soft money- money that interests can spend on behalf of candidates without being restricted by federal law
solidary incentives- benefits based on the concept that people like to associate with those who are similar to them
voting cues sources—including fellow lawmakers, constituents, and interest groups—that lawmakers often use to help them decide how to vote, especially on unfamiliar issues