AP Unit 5: Enlightenment, Revolutions, and the Industrial Age

Overview of the Enlightenment and Ideological Shifts - Definition: New shifts in ideology that emphasized reason over tradition and individualism over community values. - Core Objective: The movement aimed to improve society through human accomplishment and an understanding of the natural world. It did not deny religion but challenged the scope of its control and influenced how the world was perceived. - Historical Roots: - The Scientific Revolution: Provided the foundational logic and scientific method. - Humanism: Intellectual movement from the Renaissance that emphasized human potential. - Catalysts: Global connectivity, trade, and cultural diffusion of ideas from expanding empires. - Impact: The clash between modern concepts and traditional ideas led to revolutions in thought and physical rebellions against imperial powers or governing structures. # Key Historical Figures and Philosophical Contributions - John Locke: Argued for natural rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of property. Under his social contract theory, he posited that people have the right to rebel against an unjust government. - Thomas Hobbes: In contrast to Locke, he described life as bleak and harsh. He argued people surrendered rights to a strong government to ensure law and order via the social contract. - Baron Montesquieu: Proposed the idea of checks and balances achieved through the separation of government branches. - Voltaire: Focused on the necessity of religious liberty. - Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Introduced the concept of the "General Will," suggesting that governments are morally obligated to follow the collective will of the people. - Adam Smith: Authored ideas on laissez-faire economics, suggesting governments should "leave alone" the economy, which laid the foundation for capitalism. - Thomas Paine: Advocated for liberty from Britain and defended the concept of Deism. - Mary Wollstonecraft: Argued that females should receive the same education as males to achieve social equality and equal rights. # The 'Isms': Ideologies of the Enlightenment Era - Abolitionism: A movement dedicated to ending the Atlantic slave trade and freeing all enslaved individuals. - Capitalism: An economic system where the means of production are privately owned and operated for the purpose of profit. - Conservatism: A belief in traditional institutions that favors practical experience over unproven theories. - Deism: The belief that a divine being set natural laws into motion but does not intervene, meaning humans have free will. Scientific study is viewed as a way to understand these natural laws. - Empiricism: The philosophical belief that knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience and observation through experiments, rather than faith or religion alone. - Feminism: A social and political movement advocating for women’s rights and equality. - Liberalism (Classical): A belief system rooted in natural rights, constitutional government, and laissez-faire economics. - Nationalism: A feeling of intense loyalty to individuals sharing a language or culture, promoting the idea that such groups should have independent nations. This led to the formation of modern states. - Socialism: An economic and political system where the means of production are owned by the public or the workers. This included groups like the Fabian Society (e.g., H.G. Wells and Virginia Woolf). - Zionism: The desire for Jewish people to reestablish an independent homeland in the Middle East (their ancestral land) to escape persecution. # North American and Caribbean Revolutions - American Revolution ($1783$): - Causes: Economic and political tensions between colonists and the British crown. - Support: French assistance was pivotal in defeating the British. - Key Documents/Ideals: The Declaration of Independence, heavily influenced by John Locke. - Outcome: Successful independence established in $1783$. - Haitian Revolution: - Participants: An uprising of slaves and escaped slaves known as Maroons against their masters. - Leaders: Toussaint L’Ouverture and later Jean-Jacques Dessalines. - Key Events: Toussaint L’Ouverture created a constitution granting equality and distributed land evenly. After his capture by France, Dessalines declared permanent independence. - Outcome: Successful; it was the first country in Latin America to win independence. - Puerto Rico and Cuba: Remained among Spain’s final colonies in the Caribbean, eventually gaining independence toward the end of the $19^{th}$ century. # Latin American and Southeast Asian Revolutions - Creole Revolutions (South America): - Causes: Creoles (those of European ancestry born in the Americas) faced economic and political tensions with Spanish rule. - Key Figures: Simon Bolivar and his "Jamaica Letter." - Outcome: Independence was won for regions that became Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. However, the goal of a unified "Gran Colombia" failed. - Social Legacy: Resulted in the rise of caudillos (strong local leaders who ignored the rule of law). Ethnic divisions (the castas system) persisted, and women gained few rights. - Philippines Revolution: - Leaders: Mostly creoles and mestizos who studied in Europe and brought back Enlightenment ideals. - Movement Type: Known as the Propaganda Movement, which utilized magazines and pamphlets. - Outcome: Jose Rizal, the leader, was executed by Spanish authorities, which sparked an actual armed revolution against Spain in the $19^{th}$ century. # European and Oceanian Revolutions - French Revolution: - Causes: Economic crisis in the $1780s$ due to high government spending and a lack of representation for the Third Estate. - Key Events: Storming of the Bastille, peasant uprisings, and the adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man. - Transitions: King Louis XVI refused a limited monarchy, leading to the First French Republic in $1792$. - Radical Phase: The Reign of Terror, led by the Jacobins, resulted in thousands of executions, including King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. - Napoleon Bonaparte: Seized power and declared himself emperor in $1804$. He impacted Europe until his final defeat at Waterloo. - Motto: "Liberté, égalité, et fraternité." - New Zealand Wars: - Context: British control intensified after annexation in $1840$. - Conflict: Wars between the British and the Maori (Polynesians who migrated to New Zealand in the mid-$1200s$). - Outcome: Despite Maori tribes banding together, they were defeated by the British in $1872$. # National Unification Movements - Italy: - Leader: Count di Cavour. - Method: Used realpolitik (practical politics) to manipulate Napoleon III of France into a war with Austria ($1859$ range) to weaken Austrian influence over the peninsula. - Outcome: Unification was achieved through alliances and popular referendums (votes). - Germany: - Leader: Otto von Bismarck. - Method: Employed realpolitik to engineer three wars involving Prussia. - Outcome: Defeated France in the Franco-Prussian War ($1870$), leading to the formation of the German Empire. - Ottoman Empire: - Objective: Attempted to create a modern, unified state through "Ottomanism," which sought to minimize ethnic, linguistic, and religious differences. - Outcome: The policy resulted in increased division rather than unity. # The Industrial Revolution: Phases and Agricultural Roots - First Industrial Revolution ($18^{th}$ to early $19^{th}$ centuries): Focused on textiles, steam power, and iron. - Second Industrial Revolution (late $19^{th}$ to early $20^{th}$ centuries): Focused on steel, chemicals, precision machinery, and electronics. - Agricultural Causes: - The Agricultural Revolution included crop rotation and the seed drill. - Introduction of New World crops like the potato increased the food supply. - Result: More people meant a larger labor force for factories and more consumers for goods. - Pre-industrial Societies: The Cottage Industry was developed in Britain to compete with Indian cotton, giving women some independence before machines moved production to factories. # Technological Innovations and British Advantages - Spinning Jenny: Invented by James Hargreaves in the $1760s$, allowing weavers to spin faster. - Water Frame: Invented by Richard Arkwright in $1769$, using waterpower to drive spinning wheels, leading to the factory system. - Interchangeable Parts: Invented by Eli Whitney in $1798$. This allowed for part replacement rather than machine replacement, leading to the specialization of labor and the assembly line (e.g., Henry Ford’s Model T line). - British Leadership Factors: - Geographic: Atlantic seeways and abundant rivers. - Resources: Enormous coal deposits (leading to iron/steel) and access to timber and cotton via colonies. - Demographics: A growing and migrating population (rural to urban) caused by the enclosure movement. - Legal: Government protection of private property and strong naval fleets. # Global Spread of Industrialization and Regional Variations - France: Industrialization was delayed by the French Revolution ($1789-1799$), wars with neighbors, and sparsely populated urban centers. Stability eventually allowed for factory investment. - Germany: Delayed by political division until unification in $1871$, after which it became a leader in steel and coal. - United States: Utilized human capital (immigrants from Europe and East Asia) and vast resources (coal, timber, iron, oil). The Transcontinental Railroad (completed $1869$) was a major factor. By $1900$, it was a leading industrial power. - Russia: Focused on railroads, such as the Trans-Siberian Railroad, to connect industrial areas and trade with East Asia. Major industries included steel, coal, and iron, though it remained largely agricultural until the Communist takeover in $1917$. - Japan: The first Asian country to industrialize via "defensive modernization," adapting Western tech while protecting its culture. - India and Southeast Asia: Suffered a decline in global manufacturing due to British colonial policies, such as high tariffs and the closure of mines. - Egypt: Experienced a decline in its textile industry because of competition from British industrial output. # Technological Advancements in the 1st and 2nd Industrial Revolutions - First Industrial Revolution Tech: - Coal: Primary power source. - Steam Engine: Revolutionized ships and trains; necessitated coaling stations. - Iron: Refined coal allowed for the creation of larger iron-producing furnaces. - Second Industrial Revolution Tech: - Steel: Mass-produced via the Bessemer Process ($1856$). - Oil: Initially used for kerosene, then for internal combustion engines (leading to cars/airplanes). - Electricity: Effective generators led to public power stations, street lights, and electric street trains by the $1890s$. - Communication Technology: - Refined voice transmitter design by Thomas Edison ($1886$). - Telephone patent by Alexander Graham Bell ($1876$). - Radio by Guglielmo Marconi (first used in $1901$). # Economic Impacts and Business Reorganization - Shift in Ideology: Abandonment of mercantilism in favor of laissez-faire, capitalism, and private entrepreneurship. - Corporations: Businesses chartered by the government as legal entities owned by stockholders, which minimized risk for manufacturers. - Monopolies: Elimination of competition by a single corporation (e.g., Rockefeller’s oil industry). - Transnational Companies: Operated across national borders to access cheaper labor or raw resources (e.g., Unilever Corporation; Cecil Rhodes and De Beers Diamonds). - Banking: Increased need for banks and insurance to provide reliable saving and borrowing. - Mass Culture: Rise of consumerism and leisure as the middle class spent disposable income on nonessential goods (e.g., bicycles). # State-Sponsored Modernization efforts - Ottoman Empire: Known as "the sick man of Europe" for failing to adopt Enlightenment ideals or Western tech. - Muhammad Ali (Egypt): Reformed the military on European models, established schools, sent officers to France for education, and created the first newspaper in the Islamic world. He taxed peasants to control cotton and built textile factories/ship facilities. - Japan (Meiji Restoration): Following Commodore Matthew Perry’s demand for trade in $1853-1854$, Japan overthrew the shogun in $1868$. - Reforms: Abolished feudalism, established a constitutional monarchy, reorganized the military on the Prussian model, built a new navy with conscription, and created a school system focused on technical fields. - China: Faced setbacks like the Opium War and being split into "spheres of influence." - Reforms: The Self-Strengthening Movement and Hundred Days of Reform included the abolition of the civil service exam and the establishment of Western-style commercial and medical systems. - Resistance: Movements like the Boxer Rebellion opposed foreign influence. # Social Impacts and Challenges of Industrialization - Positive Impacts: - Increased living standards for the middle and upper classes. - Development of mass leisure: Sports (soccer, baseball, rugby; tennis/golf for the wealthy), music halls, and public parks. - Cult of Domesticity: Staying at home became a status symbol for women. - Negative Impacts: - Lower-class urban dwellers faced tenements and slums characterized by fire, crime, and open sewers. - Diseases spread quickly in polluted environments. - Working-class families were separated by long hours in dangerous conditions (factories/mines). - Working-class women and children were subjected to hazardous labor and low wages. - In Japan, industrialization led to the abuse and exploitation of female mill workers. # Philosophical and Institutional Responses to Industrialization - Labor Unions: Organizations that advocated for the right to bargain for contracts, higher wages, shorter hours, and safer conditions. This eventually led to child labor laws and expanded voting rights. - John Stuart Mill and Utilitarianism: Advocated for legal reforms to allow unions and limit child labor. Sought "the greatest good for the greatest number of people" without ending capitalism. - Karl Marx and Socialism: Argued capitalism was a form of feudalism that divided society into the proletariat (working class) and bourgeoisie (owners). He proposed a system where the workers owned the means of production, eventually leading to communism. - Ottoman Reforms: Mahmud II and the Tanzimat Reforms targeted government corruption, expanded education, and created new legal codes (though women’s rights remained limited). - British Sadler Report ($1833$): Raised awareness regarding the harsh conditions of factory labor.