Media

The Media and Government

Introduction to the Media

• Media are print and digital forms of communication that convey information to large audiences.

• 'Media' is related to the word 'medium,' which means something that transmits, a channel of transmission, or a format of expression.

• Formats of media include:

  • Print: newspapers, magazines, and books

  • Broadcast: radio and television

  • Digital: websites and social media

• In the contemporary context, the word ‘media’ also denotes the content, the institution, the establishment, and the industry.

• Especially in relation to politics and government, ‘media’ stands for an institution.

• Media is not a branch of government, yet it is an essential component of the political system.

Role of Media in a Democracy

• Media's role in American democracy:

  • To supply information to the citizenry.

  • To serve as a watchdog on actions of politicians and government.

  • To give the public the opportunity to evaluate issues to form reasoned opinions and actions.

• Free media, which is not owned and not controlled by the government, is important for having a space where government can be scrutinized.

• Authoritarian systems are notorious for suppressing free media and controlling the information provided to the public; a public place to freely criticize government is limited in such systems.

Free Media and Its Caveats

• Media in the U.S. is not owned or controlled by the government and thus is free.

• However, media is owned by private companies, which, as businesses, are guided by a motive to make a profit.

• This shapes how and what kind of information is presented to the public.

• Examples:

  • Media companies earn revenue through advertising and need to reach a wide audience to sell the air waves profitably. So, they are:

    • More likely to focus on soft news (e.g., entertainment stories).

    • More likely to focus on sensational events in political news in order to attract audiences and increase revenue from advertisers.

  • Large, global corporations own much of online and offline media, leading to media monopolies.

  • The ownership of the media has become more consolidated.

  • More than three-fourths of daily print newspapers in the U.S. are owned by media conglomerates (e.g., Hearst, Gannett).

Decline of Investigative Journalism

• Traditionally, journalists are to be guided by standards in reporting (investigative journalism):

  • Reporting of factual claims by legitimate sources

  • Citing people with credible positions

  • Eyewitness and documents from credible institutions

  • Focus on uncovering truth

  • Investigating opposing sides and providing analysis based on research

• Investigative journalism is costly for media companies: it requires resources, time, and expertise.

• In an attempt to mass-produce news stories for the market quickly, cheaply, and in bulk, fewer media outlets embrace the values of investigative journalism.

• Decline of investigative journalism contributes to:

  • Public distrust of the media and also distrust of the political system

  • The news space being dominated by lower quality information

  • The public having to rely on low-quality information when making decisions and evaluating issues

Trends in Contemporary Media

• In the past decades, TV has been a preferred source for U.S. adults to obtain news

• In the last decade, a growing percent of U.S. adults prefer to obtain news on the internet

• TV and the internet are the primary sources where contemporary adults get their news

• According to Pew Research, more Americans get news on social media than from print newspapers. Facebook continues to dominate as the most common social media site used for news by Americans (43% use this site).

• According to Pew Research, employment in digital newsrooms increased 82% between 2008 and 2018!

Traditional Media: Print

• Newspapers are part of traditional media:

  • Oldest method for the dissemination of news.

  • Newspaper print circulation is down, but several major newspapers report an increase in digital subscriptions.

  • Legacy newspapers face the greatest competition from digital-only news outlets.

Traditional Media: Broadcast Media

• Radio and TV are also part of the traditional media.

• Television still reaches more Americans than any other single news source.

• Both serve the extremely important function of alerting viewers to issues and events.

• Broadcast media cover relatively few topics and provide little depth of coverage.

• Time limits and ratings constrain content.

Radio News and Podcasts

• Radio also remains an important news source.

• Talk radio emerged in the 1990s:

  • Conservative radio hosts Rush Limbaugh and Sean Hannity drew very large audiences of listeners.

  • National Public Radio (NPR) is known for drawing more liberal audiences.

• Talk Radio station growth in recent years

  • There were only 400 radio stations in 1990, compared to more than 2,000 stations today.

  • Podcast downloads and mobile devices helped radio grow.

Comedy Talk Shows

• Comedy talk shows with political content attract millions of television viewers.

• They use humor, sarcasm, and social criticism to cover major political events.

• They have become increasingly important sources of political news, especially for younger viewers.

Generational Divide in Preferred News Sources

• American adults over the age of 50 overwhelmingly prefer to obtain news from TV

• American adults under the age of 50 prefer to obtain news from the internet

  • Among adult internet users, 6 in 10 look for news online.

• News aggregators, which collect news in one location for easy viewing, are popular.

  • Google News, Reddit, and RealClear Politics

Online Media and Users’ Comments

• Online media have created a Participatory press:

  • Readers post comments online, upload video, and participate in politics and culture online.

  • Digital citizenship – Ability to participate in society and politics online

• Disparities in internet access according to age, race and ethnicity, and income

  • digital divide: gap in access to the internet among demographic groups

The Rise of Social Media

• The rise of social media is the most important trend in news and political communication.

• Social media: web- and mobile-based technologies such as Twitter and Facebook

  • They turn communication into interactive dialogue among organizations, communities, and individuals.

  • This allows people to learn about politics and political news from each other.

  • Facebook and Twitter have contributed to political mobilization.

Social Media, Filtering, and Democracy

• Social media allows citizens to engage directly with candidates and elected officials.

• Users of social media pick own networks for information.

• B. Obama was the first president to pioneer social media, and D. Trump is known as the “Twitter President.”

• D. Trump has 50 million followers on Twitter, which gives him a direct reach to and connection with an audience, competing with media coverage of his presidency.

Digital and Niche Journalism

• The last decade has seen an increase in reporting devoted to targeted audiences:

  • Examples: Huffington Post, Vice, Buzzfeed, Gawker, Drudge Report

• Americans have shifted from getting news from a few general-purpose sources to getting it from niche publications.

Citizen Journalism

• Journalism is no longer exclusive to professional journalists.

• Citizen journalism: a key feature of digital media

  • Today, news is also reported and distributed by ordinary people

  • This is made possible by the wide availability of cameras on cell phones, used to film events

  • This is also enhanced by the ease of starting a blog or posting on a site

  • Citizen journalists supplement and often compete with the work of professional journalists.

Nonprofit Journalism

• Universities, think tanks, nonprofits, and foundations are sources of political information as well:

  • Examples of influential conservative think tanks: Brookings Institution, Cato Institute, Hoover Institution, Heritage Foundation

• Universities have expanded public outreach:

  • Faculty are encouraged to explain their research findings to a general audience

• Local foundations are often supportive of local nonprofit newspapers

Concerns about Online Media

• Limitations of online news:

  • Less investigation and watchdog work

  • Quality varies widely

  • Conflating the popular and viral with factual or important information

  • Narrow lens

  • Many websites specialize in a single point of view

  • The public has less exposure to multiple perspectives

  • Research by J. Gainous and K. Wagner shows that people prefer news that is consistent with their beliefs.

  • Fake news or false stories are used to a) generate ad revenue through clicks or b) benefit a political candidate, issue, or agenda.

  • Detrimental effects on knowledge and tolerance.

  • “Filter bubble” or “self-selection bias,” whereby individuals select news that conforms to personal beliefs.

  • Exposure to highly partisan news or news on social media may lead to lower levels of political knowledge and extreme polarization.

Media Influence on Public Opinion

• Three ways media influence public opinion:

  • Through agenda setting and selection bias: direct attention to specific topics and not others

  • Through framing: influencing how events are interpreted

  • Through priming: shaping how the audience perceives leaders, events, or issues

Agenda Setting

• First source of media power is agenda setting – influencing what is attention worthy through:

  • Identifying issues the public and politicians will think about

  • Bringing public attention to particular issues

  • Including previously marginalized issues and topics in coverage

• Agenda setting is shaping what the public will and will not think about. It is a media’s influence on making some issues salient (important), and others – unnoticed. That which is not covered and not talked about becomes non-salient.

• E.g. If there are multiple and consistent news stories about immigration across media outlets (even if they take different sides!), this gets the topic on the agenda, on the public radar so to speak.

• Ideally, we want to pay attention not only to what the media cover, but also what issues and topics the media consistently do not cover.

Selection Bias

• Selection bias may result in less information.

• Media have a tendency to focus news coverage on one aspect of an event or issue and avoid coverage of other aspects.

• Media are businesses: they seek to attract the largest audiences possible and then continue to play up to their market audience.

• The media may provide less information about important political issues than sensational stories.

  • media frenzy over Bill Clinton’s 1998 affair with an intern

  • scandals receive more coverage than policy issues

Framing

• Framing concerns the type of language, imaging, and wording used in reporting news.

• The media can influence how people interpret events and issues.

  • People’s understanding of events can be shaped by intentionally chosen words and images.

  • The choice of words is influenced by the market audience the media reports to.

  • E.g. The choice whether to frame the title of an article as “Looters in Portland” vs. “Peaceful Protesters in Portland” vs. “Protestors in Portland” vs. “Activists in Portland” will have an effect on how the audience views the event.

Priming

• Priming is the most subtle way in which media can influence politics and public opinion.

• It is a process of preparing the public to bring specific criteria to mind when evaluating politicians or issues

• Priming shapes (over time) how the public evaluates and perceives leaders and issues.

• It determines what will be considered likely/unlikely, convincing/unconvincing.

• Priming builds on agenda setting and framing.

• We can compare priming in media coverage to the process of priming in construction or application of make-up. E.g. In make-up, or in construction, priming refers to preparatory coating of the surface for the next layer; it creates a foundation on which the next layers sit securely.

• Example:

  • Suppose a humanitarian crisis in some country receives no coverage in national media. If the proposal for humanitarian intervention is suddenly voiced, it is more likely to be dismissed by the public. The audience has been primed to overlook the issue.

  • If a crisis in another country is consistently covered over time, then announcing intervention and aid is more likely to be taken seriously by the public. Through priming, in a subtle way, the public has already invested in the issue by virtue of being exposed to it regularly.

Broadcast Media and Viewers’ Ideology

• TABLE 7.1 Media and Viewers’ Ideology
  Percentage of each ideological group who report getting news about politics in the previous week from each source

Prominent newspapers and magazines by ideology:

• Liberal leaning:

  • New York Times

  • Washington Post

  • LA Times

  • Time

• Conservative leaning:

  • Wall Street Journal

  • National Review

  • Weekly Standard

  • Christian Science Monitor

The information covers several main points:

1. Media Professionals: Journalists, reporters, editors, publishers, and producers are key roles in media.

2. Distinction Between News and PR: Journalism aims to inform neutrally, while public relations seeks to promote a positive image for organizations or individuals.

3. Generational Media Preferences: Millennials and Gen Z prefer social media for news, while Baby Boomers favor television.

4. Cable TV Specialization: Cable networks specialize in different types of programming and can reach viewers nationally without local affiliates.

5. Online Media Challenges: The Internet has increased niche media but also led to poorly written content and accuracy issues.

6. Social Media Influence: Social media platforms like Facebook and Twitter facilitate instant communication but can also spread misinformation.

7. Media Conglomerates: A few large conglomerates control most U.S. media, potentially limiting information diversity and creating censorship risks.

8. Functions of the Media: Besides generating revenue, media act as watchdogs and set the agenda for public discussion.

9. Agenda Setting Examples: Media attention can drive public awareness and action on issues, such as famine in Ethiopia and human rights crises.

The new points include:

• Print Media Evolution: From early newspapers inciting revolution to the partisan press era, yellow journalism, and the rise of muckraking.

• Radio's Golden Age: The emergence of radio news, Roosevelt's "fireside chats," and changes during WWII.

• Television's Impact: Combining radio's attributes with visuals, TV enabled politicians to connect deeply with citizens; presidential debates became a staple.

• New Media Trends: Cable and the Internet led to information saturation, decreasing viewership

The evolution of media has faced challenges like accusations of bias, but technology now allows easier access to information.

Print Media:

• Early newspapers played a role in spreading information and inciting revolt, leading to increased readership.

• The party press era saw partisanship dominating editorial content due to financial support from political parties.

• Technological advancements made newspapers cheaper, leading to the rise of penny press papers and, later, yellow journalism.

• The New York Times revived impartial journalism, and muckraking exposed corruption during the Progressive Era.

• Newspapers have struggled financially in the 21st century, adapting with online presence and social media.

Radio:

• Radio news emerged in the 1920s with sponsored programs and comedy shows, expanding to rural communities.

• Politicians, like Franklin D. Roosevelt, used radio for personal communication, exemplified by his "fireside chats."

• World War II transformed radio news with live updates, leading to government regulation through the FCC.

• FM broadcasting improved sound quality, and talk stations regained importance in politics, followed by satellite radio and podcasts.

Television:

• Television combined radio and pictures, changing media with the first broadcast at the 1939 World’s Fair.

• Edward R. Murrow’s news show established television journalism, and networks began nightly newscasts.

• Television allowed politicians to connect deeply with citizens, using

The Constitution assigns Congress the task of promoting general welfare, which is used to protect citizens from inappropriate media content. While the media is independent, its freedoms aren't absolute.

Media and the First Amendment:

The First Amendment protects freedom of the press, vital for democracy. It ensures the press can inform citizens, report on government abuses, and facilitate public assembly. However, this freedom has limits.

Slander and Libel:

The media cannot engage in slander (false spoken information) or libel (false printed information) intended to harm. These acts are not protected by free speech because the information is knowingly false. Standards for lawsuits differ for public vs. private figures.

Classified Material:

The government can limit the publication of classified material, balancing the public's right to know with national security. Landmark case: New York Times was allowed to publish the Pentagon Papers, but the government can prevent publication of troop movements or covert operative names.

Media and FCC Regulations:

While newspapers are overseen by the courts, TV and radio are monitored by both courts and the FCC. The FCC licenses radio and TV stations, enforcing rules on advertising, public forums, and serving local communities. It also sets ownership limits and censors inappropriate content. Key regulations:

Equal-Time Rule: registered candidates must receive equal airtime.
Fairness Doctrine (ended in 1980s): required balanced coverage of controversial issues.
Indecency Regulations: limit indecent material and prohibit obscene content based on the Miller test.

The Telecommunications Act of 1996:

Reduced radio competition.
Changed the FCC role from regulator to monitor.

Net Neutrality:

Net neutrality rules, requiring equal internet access, have been contested. Enacted in 2015, repealed by the Trump administration, challenged by California, and the lawsuit dropped by the Biden administration. Some want the FCC to formally reinstate net neutrality.

Media and Transparency:

Sunshine laws mandate government proceedings and documents be available to the public. FOIA (1966) requires the executive branch to provide requested information, with exceptions for sensitive data. Some presidents have limited this openness.

The role of journalists, including embedded journalists in military zones, continues to evolve. Accredited journalists must be approved to cover the White House and military.

A reporter's privilege protects journalists from revealing confidential sources, but this isn't absolute. The Supreme Court has ruled journalists are not exempt from subpoenas. The executive branch's stance significantly affects government transparency.

The media significantly impacts society and government by shaping public opinion, influencing elections, and setting the agenda. Key effects include:

• Framing and Priming: The media uses episodic or thematic framing to influence how people interpret events. Priming predisposes viewers to specific perspectives.

• Campaign Coverage: Media coverage affects campaign momentum, candidate success, and the focus of political discourse, often emphasizing spectacle over substance.

• Bias and Negativity: Media bias, particularly in cable news, and increasing negativity affect public perceptions and voting behavior.

• Social Media Impact: Social media enables candidates to bypass traditional media but also presents challenges in managing negativity.

• Presidential Influence: Presidents use various strategies to manage media coverage, though the approach can vary significantly by administration.

• Societal Misrepresentation: Media portrayals can reinforce societal biases, particularly in race and gender, affecting public perceptions and policies.

Here are some answers to your questions:\

27. In what ways can the media change the way a citizen thinks about government? The media can shape citizens' perceptions of the government through agenda setting (highlighting certain issues), framing (presenting information in a particular way), and priming (influencing how people evaluate leaders and issues). For example, constant media coverage of a political scandal can erode public trust in government officials.

28. In what ways do the media protect people from a tyrannical government? A free and independent media serves as a watchdog, informing citizens about government actions and potential abuses of power. By exposing corruption, incompetence, or violations of rights, the media can hold those in power accountable and mobilize public opinion against tyranny. The Pentagon Papers case illustrates how the media can check government overreach.

29. Should all activities of the government be open to media coverage? Why or why not? In what circumstances do you think it would be appropriate for the government to operate without transparency? While transparency is crucial for a healthy democracy, there are circumstances where government activities should not be fully open to media coverage. National security concerns, ongoing law enforcement investigations, and protection of sensitive personal information are potential justifications for limiting transparency. Overly broad transparency requirements could compromise intelligence operations or jeopardize the safety of individuals.

30. Have changes in media formats created a more accurate, less biased media? Why or why not? No, changes in media formats have not necessarily created a more accurate or less biased media. While the internet and social media have democratized access to information and diverse perspectives, they have also facilitated the spread of misinformation, echo chambers, and partisan polarization. The decline of traditional journalistic standards and the rise of algorithmic filtering have further complicated the media landscape.

31. How does citizen journalism use social media to increase coverage of world events? Citizen journalism leverages social media platforms to disseminate firsthand accounts, images, and videos of world events, often bypassing traditional media gatekeepers. This can provide valuable real-time information