ap lang terms

1. Allusion: a brief reference to a person, event, place, or work of art (real or fictional)

Example: Chocolate is my Achilles heel.

2. Analogy: a figure of speech that compares two otherwise unlike things. Analogies are often

used to explain something more complex by comparing it to something that is more simple or

familiar. Example: Finding a trusted friend is like finding a needle in a haystack.

3. Antecedent: In English grammar, the antecedent is the noun or noun phrase to which a

pronoun (he, she, it, they, we, us, them, etc.) refers. In the following example, the pronoun

“him” refers to the antecedent “James”: When I think of James’s hair, I feel envious of him.

4. Antithesis: opposition or contrast of ideas or words in a parallel construction. Example: [W]e

shall . . . support any friend, oppose any foe . . .

5. Audience: the listener, viewer, or reader of a text. Most texts are likely to have multiple

audiences, sometimes referred to as the “primary audience” and “secondary audience(s).”

6. Claim: a statement that can be proved or disproved through supporting evidence. Claims can

be opposed, disagreed with, and argued against, which means they cannot be easily verified

or invalidated.

a. Claim of fact: a claim that asserts that something is true or not true. A claim of fact

must be arguable, which means it cannot be easily verifiable or resolvable. Example:

Eleventh graders contribute more to classroom discussion than tenth graders.

b. Claim of value: a claim that argues that something is good or bad, right or wrong. An

argument of value establishes specific criteria and then shows how the subject meets

the criteria. Example: Excessive standardized testing is detrimental to the education

of students.

c. Claim of policy/action: a claim that proposes a change. Arguments of policy/action

often combine claims of fact, value, and policy. They begin by identifying a problem

(claim of fact), then explain why the problem is a problem (claim of value), and then

argue that a specific change needs to happen (claim of policy/action). Example: We

should make the high school student lounge off-limits to ninth graders because ninth

graders are not mature enough to take advantage of the privilege.

7. Colloquialism: a word or phrase used in everyday conversation and creative writing that is

often considered inappropriate in formal academic writing. Examples: gonna, y’all.

8. Commentary: the explanation provided for how and why evidence supports a claim

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9. Conceit: an extended metaphor in which a speaker compares two unlike things and elaborates

on this comparison over multiple sentences or paragraphs

10. Concession: an acknowledgment that part or all of an opposing argument may be true or

reasonable

11. Connotation: meanings or associations that readers have with a word beyond its dictionary

definition, or denotation. Connotations are usually positive or negative and can inform the

speaker’s tone.

12. Context: the circumstances, atmosphere, attitudes, and events surrounding a text

13. Counterargument: an argument opposing the one a speaker is putting forward

14. Denotation: the literal meaning, or dictionary definition, of a word, not including the feelings

or ideas associated with the word

15. Diction: word choice. One of the ways in which a speaker establishes a tone and style is

through their word choice.

16. Ellipsis: a punctuation mark indicated by three evenly spaced periods (. . .) that indicates the

omission of a word or words from a sentence

17. Evidence: the proof provided in support of a claim

a. Anecdote: a brief story (real or fictional) relayed by a speaker to illustrate a point or

concept

b. First-hand evidence: evidence that is based on something the speaker knows, whether

from personal experience, observations, or general knowledge of events.

c. Quantitative evidence: evidence that can be measured, cited, counted, or otherwise

represented in numbers—for instance, statistics, surveys, polls, and census

information.

d. Second-hand evidence: evidence that is accessed through research, reading, and

investigation, including factual and historical information, expert opinions, and

quantitative data.

18. Exigence: the urgency, importance, and timeliness of the subject

a. Extrinsic exigence: when the urgency, importance, or timeliness of a subject is

obvious and doesn’t need to be explained

b. Intrinsic exigence: when the urgency, importance, or timeliness of a subject is

established in the text by the speaker

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19. Exposition: from the Latin word expositio, which means “setting forth”; a rhetorical mode

that aims to inform or explain something to the audience. Speakers often use the mode of

exposition early in a speech to explain relevant context for their argument.

20. Figurative language: the use of language in a non-literal way; a way of using words to

convey meaning beyond their literal understanding. Figurative language is a broad term that

refers to language that employs figures of speech.

21. Figure of speech: a word or phrase (such as a simile or metaphor) used in a non-literal sense

to convey meaning or heighten effect

22. Hypophora: a rhetorical device in which a speaker asks a question and then answers it.

Hypophora is different from a rhetorical question. In the case of a rhetorical question, a

speaker asks a question but does not answer it because the answer is implied.

23. Inference: a conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning rather than from

explicit statements or knowledge. One makes an inference based on something that is

implied.

24. Inversion: inverted order of words in a sentence (often takes the form of inverting the regular

subject-verb-object order). Example: United there is little we cannot do in a host of

cooperative ventures. Divided there is little we can do.

25. Irony

a. Verbal irony: when what is said is the opposite of what is meant

b. Situational irony: discrepancy/incongruity between appearance and reality, between

expectation and fulfillment, or between the actual situation and what would seem

appropriate

c. Dramatic irony: discrepancy/incongruity between what a character says or thinks and

what the reader knows to be true

26. Jargon: specialized or technical terminology used in a specific field or industry

27. Juxtaposition: placement of two things closely together to emphasize similarities or

differences. Example: [W]e are the heirs of that first revolution. Let the word go forth . . .

that the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans—born in this century . . .

28. Line of reasoning: the arrangement/order and logical structure of an argument. A line of

reasoning consists of claims, reasons, evidence, and commentary.

29. Mood: the overall feeling or atmosphere of the text as created through the speaker’s

rhetorical choices, such as their use of imagery and diction

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30. Occasion: the time and place in which a text was spoken or written

Example: Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream” speech was delivered on the steps of the

Lincoln Memorial in Washington, DC, during the March on Washington for Jobs and

Freedom on August 28, 1963.

31. Paradox: a statement or proposition that seems self-contradictory, illogical, or absurd but that

expresses a deeper truth or meaning. Paradoxes can be used to grab attention, provoke

thought, or add humor. Example: The only constant is change.

32. Parallelism: similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses.

Example: Let both sides explore. . . . Let both sides, for the first time, formulate serious and

precise proposals. . . . Let both sides seek to invoke. . . . Let both sides unite to heed . . .

33. Parody: a creative work that imitates, comments on, or mocks its subject in an ironic or

satirical way

34. Personification: attribution of a lifelike quality to an inanimate object or idea. Example: . . .

with history the final judge of our deeds . . .

35. Premise: a statement or idea that serves as the foundation for an argument. Premises can be

explicit, meaning they are explicitly stated, or implicit, meaning they are left unsaid. A

speaker can create a disconnect with their audience if they make an argument based on a

premise that is faulty or not clearly apparent.

36. Purpose: the goal/aim the speaker wants to achieve (there can be multiple purposes and,

often, these purposes are linked to different audiences)

37. Qualifier: a word or phrase that tempers or softens a claim. Examples: likely, most likely, in

large part, probably, in most cases.

38. Reason: a statement of logic in support of a claim. Reasons answer the questions “Why do

you say that?” and “What reason can you give me to believe that?” Reasons can be linked to

claims with the word “because” or the phrase “in order to.” It can be helpful to think of

reasons as subclaims—which is to say, claims that support other claims. Example: [Claim] A

liberal arts education is superior because [Reason] it teaches students independent thinking.

39. Refutation: denial of the validity of an opposing argument through reasoning and evidence

40. Rhetoric: “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion”

(Aristotle)

41. Rhetorical appeals: techniques used to persuade an audience by emphasizing what they find

most important or compelling

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a. Ethos: Greek for “character”; refers to the expertise, knowledge, experience,

authority, and/or character of the speaker. A speaker’s ethos can be automatic or pre-

established, or it can be established/built in the text. Appeals to ethos seek to

demonstrate and/or establish the credibility or trustworthiness of the speaker;

emphasize/establish shared values between the speaker and audience; and make the

speaker sound reasonable, fair, and thoughtful.

b. Logos: Greek for “embodied thought”; refers to the speaker’s use of reason in their

argument. Appeals to logos offer clear, rational arguments; use specific details,

examples, statistics, expert testimony, charts, and graphs, all of which require

research; define the terms of an argument; identify causal relationships; and often

respond thoughtfully to counterarguments.

c. Pathos: Green for “suffering”; refers to the speaker’s attempt to appeal to the

audience’s emotions, values, desires, hopes, fears, and/or prejudices. Pathetic appeals

engage emotions more than reason; elicit feelings from the audience; often make use

of figurative language, personal anecdotes, and vivid imagery; sometimes include

humor, which can make attempts at persuasion feel less preachy; and tend to be

polemical and propagandistic.

42. Rhetorical choice: a decision made by a speaker to communicate their message and persuade

their audience. Rhetorical choices include not only the use of rhetorical devices but also

decisions about how to arrange, structure, and defend an argument.

43. Rhetorical question: figure of speech in the form of a question posed for rhetorical effect

rather than for the purpose of getting an answer. Unlike in the case of hypophora, a rhetorical

question is not answered by the speaker. Example: Will you join in that historic effort?

44. Rhetorical modes (Modes of discourse): see handout

45. S.O.A.P.S.E.T.: a mnemonic device that stands for Subject, Occasion, Audience, Purpose,

Speaker, Exigence, and Tone. These various elements comprise the primary components of

the rhetorical situation.

46. Speaker: the person or group who creates the text

47. Subject: the main topic of a text (there can be explicit and implicit subjects)

48. Syntax: the arrangement of words and phrases in a sentence

49. Synthesis: carefully considering various viewpoints to create a new and more informed

viewpoint. When you write a synthesis essay, you formulate an argument of your own that

draws, cites, and engages with the arguments of others.

50. Thesis: the overriding claim of an argument

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a. Closed thesis: a statement that identifies the overriding claim of an argument and that

previews the argument’s main points, or subclaims. Closed theses often include use of

the word “because.” Example: Benjamin is an excellent student because he reads the

text closely, takes detailed notes, and studies intently.

b. Open thesis: a statement that identifies the overriding claim of an argument but does

not preview the argument’s main points. Example: Benjamin is an excellent student.

c. Counterargument thesis: a statement that identifies the overriding claim of an

argument and acknowledges/references the existence of a counterargument.

Counterargument theses often include use of “although” or “but.” Effective

counterargument theses often make a concession rather than simply acknowledge

existence of a counterargument. Example: Although Benjamin can be argumentative

in class, he is an excellent student.

d. Closed counterargument thesis: a statement that identifies the overriding claim of an

argument, previews the argument’s main points, and acknowledges/references the

existence of a counterargument. Example: Although Benjamin can be argumentative

in class, he is an excellent student because he reads the text closely, takes detailed

notes, and studies intently for tests.

51. Tone: the speaker’s attitude toward the subject as conveyed by their stylistic and rhetorical

choices

52. Types of Reasoning:

a. Analogical: a type of inductive reasoning that relies on analogy to compare two

things in order to highlight similarities between the two things and/or to highlight the

specific qualities of a given thing. The goal of analogical reasoning is not to create

absolutely certain conclusions but to cite cases and supporting evidence that can

enhance your audience’s understanding about a given thing through comparison to

other more familiar things.

b. Causal (Cause-and-effect): establishing clear and direct relationships between events.

Effective causal reasoning shows the following: (1) the cause occurred before the

effect, (2) the cause led to the effect, and (3) it is unlikely that other causes produced

the effect. It is a speaker’s job to establish clear causal relationships.

c. Conditional: relies on “If A, then B” constructions to posit that B is true if A is true.

Example: If you are a lawyer in the United States, then you must have passed the bar

exam. Flawed conditional reasoning example: If you passed the bar exam, then you

must be a lawyer.

d. Deductive: reaching a conclusion by starting with a general principle or universal

truth (a major premise) and applying it to a specific case (a minor premise). If the

major and minor premises in deductive reasoning are true, then the conclusion is

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logically valid; however, if either the major or minor premise is false or questionable,

then the conclusion is subject to challenge.

e. Inductive: arranging an argument so that it leads from particulars to universals.

Inductive reasoning draws on specific cases to reach a conclusion and involves

collecting evidence and then drawing an inference based on that evidence. Effective

inductive reasoning requires referencing sufficient concrete examples; otherwise, the

speaker risks sounding like they’re making a hasty generalization. An argument

structured inductively cannot lead to certainty, only probability.

53. Voice: the distinctive perspective and style of a speaker

Nonessential Terms

1. Anachronism: a person, thing, event, or custom that is placed in a historical time when it

does not belong. Example: a knight wearing a wristwatch in a medieval movie.

2. Anaphora: repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, or

lines. Example: . . . not as a call to bear arms, though arms we need—not as a call to battle,

though embattled we are . . .

3. Antimetabole: repetition of words in reverse order. Example: [A]sk not what your country

can do for you—ask what you can do for your country.

4. Aphorism: a brief, concise statement that expresses a general truth or moral principle.

Example: Actions speak louder than words.

5. Apostrophe: a rhetorical device in which a speaker addresses a person or thing that is not

present or is personified. Example: O wild West Wind, thou breath of Autumn’s being!”

6. Asyndeton: omission of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words.

Example: [W]e shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend,

oppose any foe to assure the survival and success of liberty.

7. Chiasmus: a reversal of grammatical structures in successive phrases or clauses. Chiasmus is

similar to antimetabole, but, unlike antimetabole, chiasmus does not involve the repetition of

words. Example: “Despised, if ugly; if she’s fair, betrayed.”

8. Didactic: a written or spoken work that is designed to teach people something

9. Epithet: an adjective or phrase that is used to express a characteristic of a person or thing.

Example: Ivan the Terrible

10. Euphemism: a rhetorical device that uses figurative language to replace words or concepts

that are considered unpleasant or inappropriate with more agreeable or less offensive

substitutes. Example: “senior citizen” is a euphemism for “older person”

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11. Hyperbole: deliberate exaggeration used for emphasis or to produce a comic or ironic effect;

overstatement to make a point. Example: I’ve told you a million times to clean up that mess.

12. Idiom: a phrase that is common in a language or culture that means something different from

how it literally sounds. Example: The early bird gets the worm.

13. Invective: a literary device in which the speaker attacks or insults a person or thing using

abusive language

14. Litotes: a rhetorical device that uses understatement to convey meaning, often by expressing

the negative of the contrary of an affirmative statement. A litotes deliberately makes

something sound less intense or extreme, often as a form of comedy or irony. For example,

the phrase “That wasn’t half bad” uses negative phrasing to indicate that something was

actually very good.

15. Logical fallacies: statements that fail to establish logical connections between the claim and

evidence used to support the claim

a. Ad hominem: Latin for “against the man”; a logical fallacy that refers to the specific

diversionary tactic of switching the argument from the issue at hand to the character

of the other speaker. If you argue that a park in your community should not be

renovated because the person supporting it was arrested during a domestic dispute,

then you are guilty of an ad hominem appeal.

b. Ad populum (bandwagon appeal): a logical fallacy in which the evidence boils down

to “everybody’s doing it, so it must be a good thing to do.” Example: You should vote

to elect Rachel Johnson—she has a strong lead in the polls!

c. Appeal to false authority: a logical fallacy that occurs when someone who has no

expertise to speak on an issue is cited as an authority. A TV star, for instance, is not a

medical expert, even though pharmaceutical advertisements often use celebrity

endorsements.

d. Begging the question: a logical fallacy in which a claim is based on evidence or

support that is in doubt. It “begs” a question whether the support itself is sound.

Example: Giving students easy access to a wealth of facts and resources online

allows them to develop critical thinking skills.

e. Circular reasoning: a logical fallacy in which the speaker repeats the claim as

evidence. Example: You can’t give me a C; I’m an A student!

f. Either/or (false) dilemma: a logical fallacy in which the speaker presents two extreme

options as the only possible choices. Example: Either we agree to higher taxes, or our

grandchildren will be mired in debt.

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g. Faulty analogy: a logical fallacy that occurs when an analogy compares two things

that are not comparable. For instance, to argue that because we put animals who are

in irreversible pain out of their misery we should do the same for people asks the

reader to ignore profound differences between animals and people.

h. Hasty generalization: a logical fallacy in which a faulty conclusion is reached based

on inadequate evidence. Example: Smoking isn’t bad for you; my great aunt smoked a

pack a day and lived to be 90.

i. Post hoc ergo propter hoc: Latin for “after which therefore because of which”; a

logical fallacy in which the speaker claims that something is a cause just because it

happened prior to something else. One may loosely summarize this fallacy by saying

that correlation does not causation. Example: We elected Johnson as president, and

look where it got us: hurricanes, floods, stock market crashes.

j. Red herring: when a speaker skips to a new and irrelevant topic to avoid the topic of

discussion

k. Straw man: a logical fallacy that occurs when a speaker chooses a deliberately poor or

oversimplified example to ridicule and refute an idea. Example: Politician X proposes

that we put astronauts on Mars in the next four years. Politician Y ridicules this

proposal by saying that his opponent is looking for “little green men in outer space.”

16. Metonymy: figure of speech in which the name of an object or concept is replaced with a

word closely related to or suggested by the original. For example, the word “crown” refers to

the “king” in the following: example: The power of the crown was mortally weakened.

17. Onomatopoeia: a rhetorical device that uses words that sound like the things they describe.

Examples: buzz, gargle, zap.

18. Oxymoron: paradoxical juxtaposition of words that seem to contradict one another. Example:

But this peaceful revolution . . .

19. Polemic: a combative style of speaking or writing that uses forceful language to support a

position and undermine an opposing one

20. Reservation: the part of an argument that explains the terms and conditions necessitated by

the qualifier

21. Rogerian argument: Developed by psychiatrist Carl Rogers, Rogerian arguments are based

on the assumption that having a full understanding of an opposing position is essential to

responding to it persuasively and refuting it in a way that is accommodating rather than

alienating.

22. Satire: the use of humor, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule to expose and criticize faults or

vices

23. Sentence types

a. Cumulative sentence: sentence that completes the main idea at the beginning of the

sentence and then builds and adds on. Example: But neither can two great and

powerful groups of nations take comfort from our present course—both sides

overburdened by the cost of modern weapons, both rightly alarmed by the steady

spread of the deadly atom, yet both racing to alter that uncertain balance of terror

that stays the hand of mankind’s final war.

b. Hortative sentence: sentence that urges, exhorts, entreats, implores or calls to action.

Example: Let both sides explore what problems unite us instead of belaboring those

problems which divide us.

c. Imperative sentence: sentence used to command or enjoin. Example: My fellow

citizens of the world: ask not what America will do for you, but what together we can

do for the freedom of man.

d. Periodic Sentence: sentence whose main clause is withheld until the end. Example:

To that world assembly of sovereign states, the United Nations, our last best hope in

an age where the instruments of war have far outpaced the instruments of peace, we

renew our pledge of support . . .

24. Syllogism: a logical structure that uses a major premise and minor premise to reach a

necessary conclusion. Major Premise: Exercise contributes to better health. Minor Premise:

Yoga is a type of exercise. Conclusion: Yoga contributes to better health.

25. Synecdoche: figure of speech that uses a part to represent the whole. Example: In your

hands, my fellow citizens, more than mine, will rest the final success or failure of our course.

26. Warrant: the part of an argument that expresses the assumption necessarily shared by the

speaker and audience.

27. Zeugma: use of two different meanings of the same word in the same sentence. Example: He

carried a strobe light and the responsibility for the lives of his men.