Baby Pluto

Mitral Valve Disorders

Mitral Valve Prolapse

Approximately 10% of individuals aged 14-30 have some degree of mitral valve prolapse.

Caused by improper closure of the cusps of the left atrioventricular valve.

Associated with abnormalities in chordae tendineae or papillary muscles.

Results in regurgitation during left ventricle contraction.

Valvular Heart Disease

Serious valve issues reduce pumping efficiency and can lead to symptoms of valvular heart disease (VHD).

Can be caused by congenital defects or develop post-carditis, often due to rheumatic fever.

Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) may manifest years after initial infection.

Rheumatic fever incidence reduced in the U.S. due to antibiotic use.

Factors Affecting Cardiac Function

Extracellular Ions and Cardiac Output

Elevated calcium levels enhance cardiac muscle excitability and strength.

Low calcium levels lead to weak contractions or cessation.

Abnormal potassium levels impact heart rate and rhythm.

Temperature changes influence heart rate and contractile force.

Blood Disorders

Abnormal Hemoglobin

Thalassemia results from inadequate globular protein production for hemoglobin.

Sickle Cell Anemia (SCA) causes RBCs to change shape under low oxygen levels.

Hemolytic anemia results from the breakdown of 'sickled' RBCs.

Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn

HDN occurs when maternal antibodies attack fetal RBCs, leading to dangerous anemia.

Sensitization often happens during delivery, causing a response in subsequent pregnancies.

Also known as erythroblastosis fetalis.

Blood Compatibility and Hemostasis

Blood Compatibility Testing

Blood typing categorizes individuals based on RBC surface antigens.

Cross-match testing ensures compatibility by exposing donor RBCs to recipient plasma.

Type O blood can be safely administered in emergencies due to its lack of A and B antigens.

Further testing may be required to confirm complete compatibility.

Abnormal Hemostasis

Disorders affecting clotting factors can disrupt the hemostasis process.

Excessive coagulation can lead to blood clots in circulation, forming emboli.

Blood Clotting and Circulatory Disorders

Embolism and Thrombus Formation

Embolism: Abnormal mass in the bloodstream that can block circulation downstream, leading to tissue death.

Types of Emboli: Include drifting blood clots, air bubbles, and fat molecules.

Consequences: Arterial emboli can cause strokes, while venous emboli can lead to pulmonary embolism.

Thrombus Formation: Blood clot attached to a vessel wall, potentially causing vessel blockage or embolus formation.

Treatment of Circulatory Blockages

Surgical Removal: Clots can be surgically removed to restore circulation.

Anticoagulants: Enzymes like streptokinase or urokinase can dissolve clots.

Tissue Plasminogen Activator (t-PA): Stimulates plasmin formation to dissolve clots.

Importance of Prompt Treatment: Necessary to prevent irreversible tissue damage.

Genetic Disorders Affecting Blood and Respiration

Hemophilia

Inherited Disorder: Characterized by inadequate production of clotting factors.

Severity: Depends on the degree of underproduction, leading to extensive bleeding in severe cases.

Treatment: Transfusions of clotting factors or gene-splicing techniques for Factor VIII production.

Prevalence: Hemophilia affects about 1 in 10,000 individuals.

Cystic Fibrosis

Inherited Disease: Involves a defect in respiratory mucosa, leading to thick, viscous mucus production.

Symptoms: Difficulty breathing, frequent bacterial infections, and reduced life expectancy.

Prevalence: Most common lethal inherited disease in individuals of northern European descent.

Genetic Basis: Results from a defective gene on chromosome 7.

Respiratory System Disorders and Emergency Interventions

Tracheal Blockage

Aspiration: Inhaling foreign objects can lead to blockages in the larynx or trachea.

Heimlich Maneuver: Technique to dislodge blockages by applying abdominal thrusts.

Intubation: Inserting a tube to maintain airflow in cases of swelling or blockage.

Tracheostomy: Surgical procedure to create an alternate air passage in severe blockages.

Pneumonia and Tuberculosis

Pneumonia: Inflammation of pulmonary lobules often caused by bacterial infections.

Tuberculosis: Bacterial infection primarily affecting the lungs, leading to varied symptoms.

Transmission: TB spreads through airborne droplets, affecting billions worldwide.

Impact: Major cause of death globally, especially in cases of compromised immunity.

Respiratory Emergency Procedures and Tests

Artificial Respiration

Techniques: Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation or intubation to provide air to non-breathing individuals.

Mechanical Ventilation: Using devices to assist in breathing when respiratory muscles fail.

Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR): Required for nonfunctional cardiovascular systems.

Training: Organizations offer training in emergency procedures like the Heimlich maneuver.

Pulmonary Function Tests

Spirometry: Measures lung capacities and airflow rates for diagnostic purposes.

Peak Flow: Records maximum forced expiration rate, useful in conditions like asthma.

Diagnostic Significance: Helps identify respiratory conditions by assessing lung function.

Asthma Example: Shows reduced vital capacity and airflow rates in constricted airways.

Respiratory Disorders

Decompression Sickness

Develops from sudden drop in atmospheric pressure

Nitrogen forms bubbles causing pain in joints, bloodstream, and cerebrospinal fluid

Commonly known as 'the bends'

Affects scuba divers resurfacing too quickly or airline passengers in sudden cabin pressure losses

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning

Caused by CO gas binding strongly to hemoglobin, reducing oxygen transport

Prevented by avoiding further CO exposure and administering pure oxygen

CO competes with O2 for heme binding sites

Treatment may involve transfusion of compatible red blood cells

Emphysema and Lung Cancer

Emphysema linked to cigarette smoke, fine particles, and genetic factors

Characterized by destruction of respiratory surfaces and inadequate gas exchange

Lung cancer originates in bronchial passages or alveoli, leading to malignancies

Treatment varies based on tumor type and metastasis

Respiratory Conditions and Responses

Hypercapnia

Increase in arterial blood P stimulates chemoreceptors

Results in hyperventilation to decrease alveolar CO2 concentrations

Hypocapnia occurs with abnormally low PCO2 levels

Chemoreceptor activity declines when PCO2 drops below normal

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

Also known as crib death, affecting infants aged two to four months

Risk factors include sleeping on the stomach and genetic predisposition

Proposed to result from respiratory center connection disruption

Accounts for approximately 2500 infant deaths annually in the US

Ascites

Caused by increased fluid movement into the peritoneal cavity

Results in abdominal swelling and organ distortion

Associated with conditions like liver disease, kidney disease, and heart failure

Symptoms include heartburn, indigestion, and low back pain

Mumps

Primarily targets salivary glands, especially parotid glands

Infection can lead to sterility in postadolescent males

Vaccine provides effective immunity against the virus

Incidence significantly reduced in the US due to widespread vaccination

Esophagitis and Diaphragmatic Hernias

Esophagitis caused by gastric acid entry into the lower esophagus

Hiatal hernias occur when abdominal organs move into the thoracic cavity

Symptoms include heartburn and discomfort

Antacids commonly used to alleviate symptoms

Gastrointestinal Disorders

Hiatal Hernias

Severity depends on location and size of herniated organs.

Most hiatal hernias go unnoticed.

Clinical issues arise from abdominal organs exerting pressure on thoracic structures or organs.

Gastritis and Peptic Ulcers

Gastritis is inflammation of the gastric mucosa due to various factors like alcohol, stress, or bacterial infections.

Peptic ulcers form when digestive acids erode stomach or small intestine linings.

Treatment includes acid production inhibitors and antibiotics for Helicobacter pylori infections.

Stomach Cancer

Common lethal cancer, especially in Japan and Korea.

Diagnosis involves x-rays, endoscopy, and tissue sampling.

Treatment may include gastrectomy with manageable post-surgery adaptations.

Pancreatitis

Inflammation of the pancreas due to various factors like infections or alcohol.

Can lead to autodigestion and potentially organ destruction.

May result in diabetes mellitus or nutrient malabsorption.

Digestive System Functions

Vomiting

Triggered by irritation in various digestive tract locations.

Involves relaxation of pylorus and expulsion of stomach contents through regurgitation.

Repeated vomiting can lead to severe tooth damage, a sign of bulimia.

Liver Disease

Liver damage poses a significant threat to life.

Conditions like cirrhosis and hepatitis are common liver diseases.

Liver transplants or experimental devices like ELAD are potential treatments.

Colorectal Cancer

High incidence but declining death rates with early detection and treatment.

Screening tests like fecal blood checks are crucial for timely intervention.

Diverticulosis

Formation of diverticula in the sigmoid colon leading to diverticulitis.

Inflammation causes pain, bleeding, and potential infections.

Colitis refers to inflammation in other colon areas.

Diarrhea and Constipation

Diarrhea results from colon absorption issues or excessive fluid entry.

Constipation involves infrequent, hard bowel movements due to slow fecal transit.

Treatment includes stool softeners, laxatives, or dietary adjustments.

Eye Disorders

Cataracts

Lens opacity causing visual impairment.

Commonly due to aging, leading to decreased transparency.

Surgical interventions involve lens removal and replacement with artificial lenses.