Landscapes of the UK

1.1.1: The Physical Landscapes of the UK Have Distinctive Characteristics

Overview of Distribution of Areas

• Upland Areas:

  • Scottish Highlands: Characterized by high mountains, deep valleys, and glacial features. 

    • Example: Ben Nevis, the highest peak in the UK.

  • The Pennines: Known as the "backbone of England," this range features rolling hills and moorlands. 

    • Example: Kinder Scout in the Peak District.

  • Snowdonia: Located in North Wales, known for rugged terrain and high peaks. 

    • Example: Snowdon, the highest mountain in Wales.

• Lowland Areas:

  • The Fens: Low-lying area in Eastern England with extensive drainage systems. 

    • Example: The Norfolk Fens.

  • The South Downs: Rolling chalk hills in Southern England. 

    • Example: Beachy Head, a famous chalk cliff.

• Glaciated Landscapes:

  • Lake District: Formed by glacial activity, featuring U-shaped valleys, ribbon lakes, and tarns. 

    • Example: Lake Windermere, the largest natural lake in England.

Distinctive Characteristics

• Geology:

  • Upland Areas:

    • Composed of harder, older rocks like granite (e.g., Dartmoor) and basalt (e.g., Giant's Causeway).

  • Lowland Areas:

    • Consist of softer, younger rocks like chalk (e.g., White Cliffs of Dover) and clay (e.g., London Clay).

• Climate:

  • Upland Areas:

    • Cooler temperatures, higher rainfall. 

      • Example: Snowdonia experiences high precipitation, influencing its lush vegetation.

  • Lowland Areas:

    • Milder temperatures, less rainfall. 

      • Example: The South East of England has a relatively dry and mild climate.

• Human Activity:

  • Upland Areas:

    • Less densely populated, with activities such as sheep farming and tourism. 

      • Example: Tourism in the Lake District.

  • Lowland Areas:

    • More densely populated, with intensive agriculture and urban development.

      • Example: Intensive farming in East Anglia.

1.1.2: Geomorphic Processes Creating Distinctive Landscapes

Types of Weathering

• Mechanical Weathering:

  • Breakdown of rock through physical processes such as freeze-thaw and exfoliation.

  • Freeze-Thaw Weathering:

    • Water enters cracks, freezes, expands, and breaks the rock apart. 

    • Example: Cairngorms, where freeze-thaw cycles are common.

  • Exfoliation:

    • Rocks expand and contract due to temperature changes, causing layers to peel off. 

    • Example: Granite domes in Dartmoor.

• Chemical Weathering:

  •  Decomposition of rocks through chemical reactions, such as acid rain breaking down limestone.

  • Acid Rain:

    • Rainwater, slightly acidic due to dissolved CO2, reacts with minerals in rocks like limestone. 

    • Example: Limestone pavements in the Yorkshire Dales.

• Biological Weathering:

  • Breakdown of rocks by living organisms, such as roots growing into cracks in rocks.

  • Tree Roots:

    • Roots grow into rock cracks, expanding and breaking the rock. 

    • Example: Brecon Beacons, where tree roots contribute to weathering.

Mass Movement

• Sliding:

  • Downward movement of rock or soil along a slope. 

  • Example: Landslides on the Jurassic Coast.

• Slumping:

  • Rotational movement of rock or soil along a curved surface. 

  • Example: Slumping on the Holderness coast due to water saturation.

Erosion

• Abrasion:

  • Rocks and particles carried by wind, water, or ice scrape against surfaces. 

  • Example: Cliff erosion at Birling Gap.

• Hydraulic Action:

  • Force of water hitting rock surfaces, causing them to break apart. 

  • Example: Coastal cliffs of Flamborough Head.

• Attrition:

  • Rocks and particles collide and break into smaller pieces. 

  • Example: Beach pebbles along Chesil Beach.

• Solution:

  • Dissolution of rock minerals by water. 

  • Example: Chalk cliffs along the southern coast of England.

Transport

• Traction:

  • Large particles rolled along the riverbed. 

  • Example: Boulders in the River Swale.

• Saltation:

  • Medium-sized particles bounced along the riverbed. 

  • Example: Gravel in the River Thames.

• Suspension:

  • Fine particles carried within the water. 

  • Example: Silt in the River Severn.

• Solution:

  • Dissolved materials transported by water. 

  • Example: Minerals in the River Wye.

Deposition

• The laying down of sediment carried by wind, water, or ice.

• Example:

  • Formation of sandbanks in the Severn Estuary, where river flow slows down and deposits sediment.

1.1.3: River Landforms

Formation of River Landforms

• Waterfall:

  • A steep drop in the river course where water falls vertically.

  • Example: High Force on the River Tees, where resistant rock overlies softer rock, causing a vertical drop.

• Gorge:

  • A narrow, steep-sided valley formed by river erosion.

  • Example: Cheddar Gorge, formed by river erosion in limestone.

• V-shaped Valley:

  • A valley with a characteristic V-shape formed by river erosion in its upper course.

  • Example: Upper valley of the River Eden, characterized by steep sides and narrow valley floor.

• Floodplain:

  • The flat area around a river that gets flooded when the river overflows.

  • Example: Floodplain of the River Trent, a flat area prone to flooding.

• Levee:

  • Raised banks along the sides of a river, formed by deposition during floods.

  • Example: Natural levees along the River Severn, formed by deposition during floods.

• Meander:

  • A winding curve or bend in a river.

  • Example: Meanders of the River Ouse, showing large bends in the river course.

• Ox-bow Lake:

  • A curved lake formed from a meander that has been cut off from the main river channel.

  • Example: Ox-bow lake near Abingdon, formed from a cut-off meander in the River Thames.

1.1.4: Coastal Landforms

Formation of Coastal Landforms

• Headland:

  • A point of high land jutting into the sea.

  • Example: The Foreland, a chalk headland on the Isle of Purbeck, Dorset.

• Bay:

  • A broad inlet of the sea where the land curves inward.

  • Example: Lulworth Cove, formed by differential erosion of softer rocks.

• Cave:

  • A hollow area in the earth, often found in coastal cliffs.

  • Example: Fingal's Cave on the Isle of Staffa, formed by wave action on basalt columns.

• Arch:

  • A natural arch-shaped rock formation formed by erosion.

  • Example: Durdle Door, a natural limestone arch in Dorset.

• Stack:

  • A pillar of rock isolated from the land by wave erosion.

  • Example: Old Harry Rocks, stacks of chalk on the Dorset coast.

• Beach:

  • A pebbly or sandy shore.

  • Example: Chesil Beach, a shingle beach along the Dorset coast.

• Spit:

  • A narrow point of land projecting into the sea, formed by deposition.

  • Example: Spurn Point, formed by longshore drift along the Holderness coast.

1.1.5: Dynamic Landscapes

Two Case Studies

1. UK River Basin: River Thames Basin

   • Geomorphic Processes:

     • Weathering: Chalk in the Chilterns undergoes chemical weathering.

     • Erosion: Hydraulic action and abrasion along the riverbanks.

     • Transport: Suspension and solution carry fine particles and minerals.

     • Deposition: Formation of floodplains and levees.

   • Landforms and Features:

     • Floodplain of the Thames, meanders near Oxford, and levees in the lower course.

   • Human Activity:

     • Urbanization: London’s expansion affects river flow and increases flood risk.

     • Flood Management: Thames Barrier protects London from tidal surges.

     • Agriculture: Intensive farming in the Thames Valley.

2. UK Coastal Landscape: Jurassic Coast

   • Geomorphic Processes:

     • Wave Action: Erosion forms cliffs and caves.

     • Longshore Drift: Transports and deposits sediments along the coast.

     • Erosion: Hydraulic action, abrasion, and attrition shape the coastline.

   • Landforms and Features:

     • Headlands like The Foreland, bays like Lulworth Cove, and stacks like Old Harry Rocks.

   • Human Activity:

     • Tourism: Popular destination, leading to footpath erosion and litter.

     • Coastal Defenses: Groynes and sea walls to prevent erosion.

     • Land Use Management: Balancing conservation and development

People of the UK

1.2.1: The UK is Connected to Many Other Countries and Places

Overview of the UK’s Current Major Trading Partners

• Principal Exports:

  • Manufactured Goods: Vehicles, machinery, and pharmaceuticals.

    • Example: The UK exports a significant number of cars to the European Union.

  • Services: Financial, legal, and educational services.

    • Example: London is a global financial hub, exporting financial services worldwide.

  • Raw Materials: Chemicals and oil.

    • Example: The UK exports crude oil and natural gas to various countries.

• Principal Imports:

  • Manufactured Goods: Electronics, clothing, and vehicles.

    • Example: The UK imports many electronic products from China and the US.

  • Food and Beverages: Fruits, vegetables, wine, and meat.

    • Example: A large proportion of the UK’s food imports come from the EU.

  • Raw Materials: Oil and machinery.

    • Example: The UK imports machinery from Germany and other EU countries.

1.2.2: The UK is a Diverse and Unequal Society Which has Geographical Patterns

Understanding of the UK’s Geographical Diversity

• Patterns of Employment:

  • Higher employment rates in the South East and London.

  • Higher unemployment rates in former industrial areas in the North and Midlands.

• Average Income:

  • Higher average incomes in London and the South East.

  • Lower average incomes in rural areas and former industrial regions.

• Life Expectancy:

  • Higher life expectancy in the South East and East of England.

  • Lower life expectancy in Scotland and parts of Northern England.

• Educational Attainment:

  • Higher levels of educational attainment in London and the South East.

  • Lower levels in the North East and parts of Wales.

• Ethnicity:

  • Greater ethnic diversity in urban areas, particularly London, Birmingham, and Manchester.

  • Predominantly White British population in rural areas and smaller towns.

• Access to Broadband:

  • Better access in urban areas and the South East.

  • Poorer access in rural areas and some parts of the North.

1.2.3: There are Different Causes and Consequences of Development Within the UK

Causes of Uneven Development

• Geographical Location:

  • Proximity to London and the South East tends to lead to higher development.

  • Remote rural areas and former industrial regions often lag behind.

• Economic Change:

  • Deindustrialization has affected regions like the North East and West Midlands.

  • Growth of the service sector has benefited London and the South East.

• Infrastructure:

  • Better transport links in the South East.

  • Poorer infrastructure in rural and some former industrial areas.

• Government Policy:

  • Regional development funds and policies aiming to reduce disparities.

Case Study: Consequences of Economic Growth and/or Decline

• Example: London’s Economic Growth:

  • Increased job opportunities, higher wages, and better infrastructure.

  • Rising living costs, housing shortages, and increased inequality.

• Example: Decline in the North East:

  • Higher unemployment, outmigration, and social deprivation.

  • Efforts to regenerate through initiatives like the Northern Powerhouse.

1.2.4: The UK’s Population is Changing

Changes in Population Structure from 1900 to Present

• Demographic Transition Model:

  • Shift from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates.

  • Aging population due to lower birth rates and increased life expectancy.

• Causes and Effects of an Aging Population:

  • Causes: Increased life expectancy, declining birth rates.

  • Effects: Increased demand for healthcare and pensions, changes in the labor market.

• Immigration Flows in the 21st Century:

  • Significant immigration from the EU and non-EU countries.

  • Social and economic impacts include cultural diversity, increased labor supply, and pressure on public services.

1.2.5: Causes for and Consequences of Urban Trends in the UK

Overview of Causes for Urban Trends

• Suburbanisation:

  • Movement from city centers to suburbs due to better living conditions and transport links.

• Counter-urbanisation:

  • Movement from urban areas to rural areas driven by the desire for a better quality of life.

• Re-urbanisation:

  • Movement back to urban areas due to regeneration projects and improved living conditions.

Consequences of Urban Trends

• Social Consequences:

  • Changes in community structure, increased diversity in urban areas, and potential social tensions.

• Economic Consequences:

  • Investment in urban regeneration, rising property prices, and economic opportunities.

• Environmental Consequences:

  • Urban sprawl, increased pollution, and pressure on green spaces.

1.2.6: Cities Have Distinct Challenges and Ways of Life

Case Study of One Major City in the UK: London

• Influence of the City within its Region, Country, and the World:

  • London is a global financial and cultural hub, attracting businesses and tourists worldwide.

• Migration:

  • National Migration: Influx of people from other parts of the UK for job opportunities.

  • International Migration: Diverse immigrant population contributing to cultural richness and economic growth.

• Ways of Life:

  • Diverse cultural activities, varying housing options, and different lifestyle choices based on areas within the city.

  • Example: East London known for its vibrant arts scene, while West London is known for affluence and high-end living.

• Contemporary Challenges:

  • Housing Availability: High demand and rising prices make housing unaffordable for many.

  • Transport Provision: Congestion and pollution despite extensive public transport networks.

  • Waste Management: High waste production and need for sustainable management solutions.

• Sustainable Strategies:

  • Development of affordable housing projects.

  • Expansion and improvement of public transport (e.g., Crossrail project).

  • Initiatives for green spaces and reducing carbon emissions (e.g., Ultra Low Emission Zone).

UK Environmental Challenges

1.3.1 The UK has a unique climate for its latitude which can create extreme weather conditions.

• Air Masses:

  • Polar Maritime (mP): Originates from the North Atlantic and brings cold, moist air, resulting in cool, wet weather.

  • Tropical Maritime (mT): Comes from the Azores and brings warm, moist air, leading to mild, wet weather.

  • Polar Continental (cP): From Eastern Europe and Russia, it brings cold, dry air in winter, causing severe frosts and snow.

  • Tropical Continental (cT): From North Africa, it brings hot, dry air in summer, leading to heatwaves.

  • Arctic Maritime (mA): From the Arctic, it brings very cold, wet air, often resulting in snow in winter.

• North Atlantic Drift:

  • A warm ocean current that significantly affects the UK’s climate by raising temperatures, especially along the western coast. This current helps to keep the UK warmer than other places at similar latitudes.

• Continentality:

  • The UK’s proximity to the Atlantic Ocean leads to maritime influences, resulting in a milder climate with relatively moderate temperatures year-round. This contrasts with continental climates, which have more extreme temperatures.

Example:

• The "Beast from the East" in 2018: A severe cold wave that struck the UK due to the Polar Continental air mass, bringing heavy snow and freezing temperatures, causing significant disruptions.

1.3.2 Extreme flood hazard events are becoming more commonplace in the UK.

• Causes of the Flood Event:

  • Heavy Rainfall: Intense and prolonged rain can overwhelm drainage systems and rivers, leading to floods.

  • Storm Surges: High winds and low pressure can raise sea levels, causing coastal flooding.

  • Snowmelt: Rapid melting of snow due to sudden temperature increases can lead to river floods.

  • Urbanization: Increased impermeable surfaces (e.g., concrete) reduce natural drainage, exacerbating flood risks.

• Effects of the Flood Event:

  • Impact on People: Displacement, property damage, loss of life, health issues due to waterborne diseases.

  • Impact on the Environment: Soil erosion, pollution of water bodies with contaminants, destruction of habitats.

• Management of the Flood Event:

  • Short-term Responses: Emergency services deployment, sandbagging, temporary shelters, and evacuations.

  • Long-term Strategies: Building flood defenses (e.g., Thames Barrier), improving drainage systems, floodplain zoning, and promoting sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS).

Example:

• The 2007 UK Floods: Affecting large parts of England, particularly Gloucestershire, with record rainfall causing extensive river flooding. The event led to significant damage to homes, infrastructure, and agriculture, and prompted changes in flood management policies.

1.3.3 Humans use, modify and change ecosystems and environments to obtain food, energy, and water.

• Mechanization of Farming and Commercial Fishing:

  • Agriculture: Use of machinery, fertilizers, and pesticides increases food production efficiency but can lead to soil degradation, water pollution, and loss of biodiversity.

  • Fishing: Techniques like trawling and the use of large nets can deplete fish stocks and damage marine habitats.

• Wind Farms and Fracking:

  • Wind Farms: Provide clean energy but may impact bird migration patterns and local wildlife. Visual and noise pollution can also be concerns for local communities.

  • Fracking: Extraction of shale gas through hydraulic fracturing. While it provides a domestic energy source, it can cause groundwater contamination, earthquakes, and release of methane, a potent greenhouse gas.

• Reservoirs and Water Transfer Schemes:

  • Reservoirs: Store water for domestic, agricultural, and industrial use. Construction can flood large areas, disrupting local ecosystems and communities.

  • Water Transfer Schemes: Transfer water from areas of surplus to areas of deficit. These projects can alter natural water courses and impact the environment and local water availability.

Example:

• Kielder Water Reservoir: Constructed in Northumberland to provide water for the North East of England. While it supports water supply and recreational activities, it involved flooding a large area and changing the local ecosystem.

1.3.4 There are a range of energy sources available to the UK.

• Renewable Energy Sources:

  • Solar Power: Photovoltaic panels convert sunlight into electricity. Suitable for domestic and commercial installations.

  • Wind Power: Onshore and offshore wind farms generate electricity. The UK has significant offshore wind resources.

  • Hydropower: Uses flowing water to generate electricity, including large dams and small-scale hydro projects.

  • Biomass: Organic materials (e.g., wood, agricultural residues) burned to produce heat and power. Can be carbon-neutral if managed sustainably.

• Non-renewable Energy Sources:

  • Coal: Historically a major energy source, now being phased out due to high carbon emissions.

  • Oil: Used primarily for transportation and heating. Significant source of CO2 emissions.

  • Natural Gas: Widely used for electricity generation and heating. Cleaner than coal and oil but still a fossil fuel.

  • Nuclear Power: Provides a significant portion of the UK’s electricity. Low carbon emissions but concerns about radioactive waste and high costs.

• Contribution to Energy Supply:

  • Renewable energy sources are rapidly growing in their share of the energy mix, driven by policies like the UK's commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

  • Non-renewable sources are being reduced to meet climate targets, with a focus on transitioning to cleaner energy.

Example:

• London Array: One of the world’s largest offshore wind farms, located in the Thames Estuary. It contributes significantly to the UK’s renewable energy capacity and helps reduce carbon emissions.

1.3.5 Energy in the UK is affected by a number of factors and requires careful management and consideration of future supplies.

• Changing Patterns of Energy Supply and Demand:

  • 1950s to Present: Post-war period saw heavy reliance on coal. Transition to natural gas in the 1970s and 1980s due to North Sea gas discoveries. Recent decades have seen a push towards renewable energy and reducing carbon emissions.

• Strategies for Sustainable Use and Management:

  • Energy Efficiency: Improving insulation, energy-efficient appliances, and industrial processes to reduce energy consumption.

  • Renewable Energy Investment: Supporting the development of solar, wind, and other renewable technologies through subsidies and incentives.

  • Grid Modernization: Upgrading the electricity grid to handle distributed renewable energy sources and improve reliability.

• Development of Renewable Energy:

  • Projects: Large-scale wind and solar farms, as well as community energy projects.

  • Impacts: Reducing carbon footprint, creating jobs in the green economy, and enhancing energy security.

• Non-renewable Energy:

  • Phase-out Plans: Gradual reduction in the use of coal and oil, with a focus on cleaner alternatives.

  • Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): Technologies to capture CO2 emissions from fossil fuel power plants and store them underground to mitigate climate impact.

• Economic, Political, and Environmental Factors:

  • International Agreements: Commitments under the Paris Agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

  • Political Decisions: Government policies and subsidies that support or hinder different energy sources.

  • Economic Considerations: Costs of energy production, consumer prices, and investment in new technologies.

  • Environmental Impact: Managing the ecological footprint of energy production, including habitat preservation and pollution control.

Example:

• UK's Net Zero by 2050 Goal: The government’s legally binding target to achieve net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050, which includes plans to phase out coal, increase renewable energy capacity, and invest in energy efficiency and CCS technologies.