violence

Roman imperial army (on paper)

• Total size: 300-450k soldiers

  • 30 legions = 5200 soldiers each (roman citizens)

  • Allied contingents (non citizens) – those who were discharged gained roman citizenship as an incentive

• Total expense: c. 75% of roman imperial budget

Distribution of legions:

• 1st century: mostly concentrated in britain and eastern frontier

• 2nd century: legions move eastward and north

Luttwak: modern strategist theorist who wrote abt the 3 systems of roman imperial strategy

• Hegemonic system (1st cent BCE): roman empire is divided into 3 zones

  • Inner zone: direct control

  • Middle zone: diplomatic control

  • Outer zone: influence

• Preclusive system: all of roman empire is under direct control, with genuine perimeter defense w fixed boundaries

• Defense in depth system: very elastic, key strategic locations are fortified with mobile troops 

Luttwak’s theory lacks evidence bc there lacks an institutional framework for strategy (no military training schools)

Luttwak may have also confused frontier and borders.  In addition, his theory also groups all the frontiers together even though they were v diff

Roman military success is attributed to superior armor and weaponry

• Helmet, shield, spear, javelin, short sword, dagger, etc.

A structural advantage that the roman army had was that they could fight anywhere… mountains, forests, coastlines etc

Roman artillery: spear catapult (ballista)

Romans also developed methods of seige warfare by breaching walls and cutting off resources

Overall, fighting big battles was very rare. Most of the time, roman troops were actually policing rather than fighting in big wars

Roman legionary camp at novaesium (lower germany): huge size

Institution of slavery is structurally violent

Physical punishment of slaves was a standard prerogotaive of enslavers

Enslavers are allowed to beat their slaves profusely… if the slave accidentally dies, the enslaver shall not be charged

Slaves could be flogged for sneezing, coughing, hiccups

Slave collars, branding

Personal degradation of being bought and sold: forced to stand naked in public markets while collared and shackled

Slaves were liable to criminal penalties

Dual penalty system for crimes

• Honestiores (‘the more honorable ones”): less harsh punishments

• Humiliores (“the more humble ones”): harsher punishments

• Summa supplicia (extreme punishments): crematio (burning alive–typical punishment of a slave who conspires against their master), crux (crucifixion), condemnatio ad betias (being thrown to wild beasts in the amphitheater)

• Higher status ppl can be only exiled for big crimes while lower class ppl and slaves could face death penalty

Roman public entertainment (and venues):

• Chariot racing (circus)

• Athletic competitions (stadium)

• Dramatic productions/plays (theaters)

• Gladatorial combat (amphitheater)

Amphitheater: distinctly roman architectural form that proliferates all around the roman world, serves as a status symbol and legitimizes a city

• Double theater–has to go all the way around

A day at the amphitheater:

• Morning: venatio (“wild-beast hunt”), trainted hunters slaughter wild animals for entertainment

  • Audience kept demanding more exotic animals 

  • Elephants, crocodiles, rhinos, etc

• Early afternoon: execution of condemned criminals, some were killed quickly but most were killed spectacularly (being thrown to the wild beast)

• Late afternoon: gladiatorial combat. Some gladiators were prisoners of war but many also fought on a professional basis and they could acquire money and fame from this.

Spectacles of amphitheater can serve as a means to reinforce social and political order and a form of social bonding