1. What is Science?

   Vocabulary Terms

   • Science: A philosophy used to answer questions about the natural world through observation and experimentation

   • Independent (Manipulated) Variable: Variable being changed, on the x axis

   • Dependent (Responding) Variable: This is the variable you measure (AKA what are you changing?), on the y axis

   • Scientific Method: Way of collecting evidence that supports or rejects a prediction

   • Controlled Experimentation: Tying to answer a question by changing one variable at a time; one thing must be changed; one thing must be measured

   • Control Group: Under “normal” conditions, used for comparison

   • Experimental Group(s): One variable is changed

2. Scientific Method

   Steps of Scientific Method

   1. Make an observation

   2. Ask a question

   3. Research

   4. Make a Hypothesis

   5. Develop a controlled experiment

   6. Conduct the experiment; measure and record data

   7. Analyze data

   8. Draw Conclusion

   9. Share your results and try again

   Conclusions

   • Support hypothesis

   • Reject hypothesis

   • Leave the hypothesis inconclusive

   Experimental Design

   • Independent Variable: Variable being changed

   • Dependent Variable: This is the variable you measure (AKA what are you changing?)

   • Controlled Experimentation: Tying to answer a question by changing one variable at a time; one thing must be changed; one thing must be measured

   • Control Group: Under “normal” conditions, used for comparison

   • Experimental Group(s): One variable is changed

3. Levels of Organization

   1. Subatomic Particles

      • ex: protons, neutrons, electrons

   2. Atoms

      • hydrogen, oxygen, carbon

   3. Molecules

      • Two or more atoms chemically combined

      • ex: H20, C02

   4. Macromolecules

      • Smaller molecules combined

      • ex: proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids

   5. Organelles

      • Organs of the cell

      • ex: mitochondria, nucleus, lysosomes, etc….

   6. Cells

      • Plant vs animal

      • Prokaryotic (no nucleus) and Eukaryotic (nucleus)

   7. Tissues

      • Groups of similar cells performing similar functions

      • ex: lung, muscle, connective tissues

   8. Organs

      • ex: lungs, pancreas, kidney

   9. Organ System

      • Groups of organs working together

      • ex: reproductive, nervous, digestive

   10. Organisms

       • Plants, Humans, Animals

   11. Populations

       • Group of similar organisms, living in the same region

       • ex: school of fish, humans, murder of crows

   12. Community

       • A bunch of populations in the same area

       • ex: Masters Campus

   13. Ecosystem

       • Community + non living things (abiotic)

       • ex: Forest

   14. Biomes

       • Ecosystems that have similar populations as well as environmental conditions; not necessarily near each other

       • ex: desert, tundra, rain forest

   15. Biospheric

       • All the biomes

       • ex: earth

   16. Solar System

   17. Galaxy

   18. Universe

4. Characteristics of Living Organisms

   Living things share 8 basic characteristics

   1. They are made of cells

   2. They reproduce

   3. They are based on a universal genetic code

   4. They grow and develop

   5. They use materials and energy

   6. They respond to the environment

   7. They maintain an internal balance (homeostasis)

   8. They change over time

5. Biochemistry

   Protons

   • The # of protons defines what type of element an atom is

   • The # of protons = the atomic number

   Neutrons

   • Different atoms of the same element can have different number of neutrons; called isotopes

   Electrons

   • Atoms can gain, lose, or share electrons

   • Atoms are electrically neutral because the # of protons = # of electrons

   Structure of an Atom

   • Goal of most atoms is to have 8 valence electrons

     • Except hydrogen

   • Valence Electrons: Electrons in the outermost energy level (rings)

   • Covalent bonds atoms share electrons

   • Water is a polar molecule (it has a positive and negative side)

     

   Covalent Compounds

   • Form when atoms share electrons

   

   Properties of Water

   • Water is…..

     • Cohesive: Water molecules “stick” to other water molecules

       • ex: water on a penny

     • Adhesive: Water molecules “stick” to other substances

       • ex: The smaller tube having the most water

     • High Heat Capacity: Slow to heat and its slow to cool

       • ex: On a humid day, the sand gets hot but the ocean remains cold

     • Surface Tension: The molecules on the top of a water sample are attracted to the molecules beneath which creates a thin “net” holding the water together'

       • ex: bugs being able to walk on water

     • Polar: Allows water molecules to attract each other (through hydrogen bonding) and interact with other polar molecules and have a positive and negative side

     • Universal Solvent: Most ionic compounds will dissolve in water; most polar covalent compounds will dissolve in water

       • ex: Salt dissolving in water

     • Capillary Action: The ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of external forces like gravity.

       • ex: Water getting from roots to plants

Ionic Bonds

• Form when atoms transfer electrons

  • one atom has a (+) charge

  • one atom has a (-) charge

Enzymes

• Biological Catalysts

• Proteins (proteins are made of amino acids)

• Has its own unique 3D shapes

• Has a different “R” group

• Each enzyme is unique to a specific substrate

  • Lock (enzyme) + Key (substrate)

• Enzymes can be denatured (change shape) by:

  • Change in temperature

  • Change in pH

Catalysts

• Speeds up chemical reactions at a lower temperature

• They are not consumed

• Both Reactants and products

• Reusable

Macromolecules

• Carbohydrates

  • Composed of: Hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon (monosaccharides)

  • Monomers: Glucose, Fructose, and galactose

  • Examples: Sugar, starch cellulose

  • Function: Short Term Energy

• Lipids:

  • Composed of: Carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen

  • Monomers: Glycerol and Fatty Acids

  • Examples: Oil, wax, glyceride

  • Function: Insulation, long term energy

• Proteins

  • Composed of: Nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, carbon

  • Monomers: Amino acids

  • Examples: Enzymes, hormones

  • Function: Control rate of reactions and regulates cell processes, transports substances in and out of cells

• Nucleic Acids

  • Composed of: Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphates

  • Monomers: Nucleotides

  • Examples: DNA and RNA

  • Function: Store and transfer genetic and hereditary information

6. Cell Organelles

   Cell Types

   1. Nucleus

      • Membrane-bound

      • Contains DNA

      • Shares genetics

      • Present in eukaryotic cells

   2. Ribosome

      • Particles of RNA

      • Build/Synthesize proteins

      • Present in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

   3. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

      • Rough ER has ribosomes attached to surface

      • Produce lipids, carbs, and proteins

      • Present in eukaryotic cells

   4. Golgi Apparatus

      • Sort and package the proteins and lipids for storage or for transport out of the cell

      • Present in eukaryotic cells

   5. Lysosomes

      • Contains enzymes

      • Breaksdown macromolecules

      • Present in eukaryotic (animal) cells

   6. Vacuoles

      • Store materials and water

      • Smaller in animal cells, bigger in plant cells

      • Present in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

   7. Mitochondria

      • “Powerhouse” of the cells

      • Converts chemical energy into a useable form

      • Respiration = usable energy

      • Present in eukaryotic cells'

   8. Chloroplasts

      • Absorbs sunlight

      • Produces sugar

      • Present in eukaryotic plant cells

   9. Cell Membrane

      • Regulates the passage of substances in and out of the cell

      • Present in prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells'

   10. Cell Wall

       • Surrounds the cell membrane

       • Provides structure and support

       • Present in prokaryotic and plant cells

   11. Cytoplasm

       • Jelly like substances that fill the cells

       • Other organelles “float” in it

       • Present in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

   Prokaryotes

   • No nucleus

   • No membrane-bound cells

   • Simple

   • DNA is “free floating”

   • Smaller than eukaryotic cells

   • ex: bacteria

   Eukaryotic Cells

   • Eukaryotic cells have a membrane-bound nucleus

   • More complex than prokaryotes

   • Bigger than prokaryotes

   • ex: animal cells, human cells, plant cells

   Cell Concepts

   1. Membranes are fluid and flexible

   2. Membranes can self-repair

   3. Eukaryotic cells feature membrane bound organelles

   4. Membrane proteins perform special functions

   Plant Cell

   • Cell Wall

   • Cytoskeleton

   • Golgi Apparatus

   • Vacuole

   • Nucleus

   • Endoplasmic Reticulum

   • Ribosome

   • Chloroplast

   • Cell membrane

   • Mitochondria

   • Cytoplasm

   • ccccgevnmr

   Animal Cell

   • Cell Membrane

   • Cytoplasm

   • Lysosomes

   • Mitochondria

   • Endoplasmic Reticulum

   • Ribosomes

   • Golgi Apparatus

   • Nucleus

   • cclmergn

   Vocabulary

   • Cholesterol: A hydrophobic lipid molecule that changes the fluidity of the membrane

   • Phospholipid: Lipids with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails that form two layers in the membrane and can move

   • Transport Proteins: Proteins that help carry substances across the membrane or allow molecules to pass through a channel

   • Glycolipid: Lipids with carbohydrate chains that serve as cell recognition, helps with cell communication

   • Glycoprotein: Proteins with carbohydrate chains that serve as cell recognition, helps with cell communication

   • Protein Channels: Provides safe passage for molecules (ions) that can’t go through the phospholipid bilayer

   • Cytoskeleton Filaments: Long protein chains that help the cell hold its shape, organelles and other large molecules can travel along these chains like super highways in the cell

   • Phospholipid Head: Hydrophilic, polar

   • Phospholipid Tail: Hydrophobic, non-polar

7. Cell Membrane

   Passive Transport (Require NO energy)

   • Diffusion

     • When particles flow from high concentration to low concentration

     • Across cell membranes

     • Non polar molecules

     • ex: The smell of hand lotion

   • Facilitated Diffusion

     • Particles move from up to down through protein channels

     • ex: VIP line

   • Osmosis

     • Diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane

     • Moves through aquaporins

     • Water moves from an area of high concentration to low concentration

     • Goal is to balance things out on both sides of the barrier

   Active Transport (Requires ATP)

   • Requires energy

   • Moves from low to high concentration

   • Uses protein pumps; pumps change shape to fit particles

   • Exocytosis

     • Process used by cells to move substances out of the cell

     • Vesicles: Contain the substances that are being moved

   • Endocytosis

     • Process where the cell takes in materials from the outside environment

   • Protein Pumps

     • Help move molecules across the membrane across the gradient

   Cell Theory

   1. All living organisms are made from cells

   2. Cell are the basic unit of life

   3. All cells come from other cells

   Hypotonic

   • When comparing two solutions, the solution with the lower amount of solute

   • Cells swell, then lead to potential bursting

   Hypertonic

   • When comparing two solutions, the solution with the higher amount of solute is called hypertonic

   • Cells shrink

   Isotonic

   • A solution that has the same concentration of solutes as another solution, leading to no movement of water

   Cytolysis

   • A process that occurs when a cell swells and bursts due to too much water in a hypotonic solution

   • Can be prevented by the cell wall (in plant cells) by providing structural support

   Plasmolysis

   • A process that occurs when a plant cell loses water and shrinks away from its cell wall due to being placed in a hypertonic solution

8. Photosynthesis

   Chlorophyll and Contrasts

   • Sunlight is “white” light- actually a mixture of different wavelengths

   • Photosynthetic organisms capture light energy from sunlight with pigments

   • Light energy from the sun must be captured for photosynthesis

   • Pigments: light-absorbing compounds

   • Chloroplasts: Organelle where photosynthesis takes place

   Chloroplast Structure

   • Chloroplast is stored in the thylakoid membranes

     

   Electron Carriers

   • A compound that can accept a pair of high energy electrons and transfer them, a long with most of their energy.

   • A compound called NAPD+ acts as an electron carrier by accepting 2 high energy electrons and 1 hydrogen ion

   • NADPH can carry the high-energy electrons that were produced by light absorption in the chlorophyll to chemical reactions elsewhere in the cell

   Overview of Photosynthesis

   • Photosynthesis uses the energy of sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide (low energy reactants) into high energy sugars and oxygen (products)

   • Chemical Equation: 6CO2 + 6H20 → C6H120O6 + 6O2

   • Autotrophs do photosynthesis

   Photosynthesis and Light

   • Light-dependent reactions

   • Light-independent reactions

     

     oxygen comes from the water,

   Light Dependent Reactions

   • Occur in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts

   • Inputs: H20, Light, ADP, NADP+

   • Outputs: O2, ATP, NADPH

   • Steps

     1. The sun strikes an electron that is inside PSII. The electron then gets excited

     2. The electron has too much energy so it can’t stay in PSII, so it goes through the electron transport chain. As the electron goes through the ETC, hydrogen and oxygen atoms are going to be released into the thylakoid

     3. The hydrogen that were released during the ETC, are going to be pushed down through ATP synthase and into the stroma. The hydrogen ions that are in the stroma now, turn the ADP into ATP

     4. Eventually, sunlight will excite the electron that is now in PSI and goes through the second ETC. That electron then converts NADP+ into NADPH

   

   Light Independent (Calvin Cycle) Reactions

   • Occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast

   • Inputs: CO2, ATP, NADPH

   • Outputs: Glucose (C6H12O6), ADP, NADP+

9. Cellular Respiration

   Overview of Cellular Respiration

   • Cellular respiration is a process of energy conversion that releases energy from food in the presence of oxygen

   • Everything

     

   Cellular Respiration Chemical Equation

   • In symbols:

     • 6O2 + C6H12O6 → 6CO2 + 6H20 + ATP

       ETC Glycolysis Krebs ETC (Majority come from ETC)

   • In Words:

     • Oxygen + Glucose → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy

   Glycolysis

   • Where does it occur?: Cytoplasm

   • Inputs: ATP, 1 Glucose, NAD+, ADP

   • Outputs: 2 pyruvic acid, 4 ATP (2 net)

   • Where do the outputs go?: The pyruvic acid goes to Krebs Cycle, ATP is used by the cell, NADH goes to ETC

   • Doesn’t require oxygen (anaerobic), quick energy

   Krebs Cycle

   • Where does it occur?: Mitochondrial matrix

   • Inputs: 2 pyruvic acid, NAD+, FAD, ADP

   • Outputs: 6 CO2, 8 NADH, 2 ATP, 2 FADH2

   • Where do the outputs go?: NADH and FADH2 got to ETC, ATP gets used by the cell, CO2 diffuses out and you exhale

   Electron Transport Chain

   • Where does it occur?: Inner Membrane of the Mitochondria

   • Inputs: NADH, FADH2, O2, ADP

   • Outputs: 6H2O, 34 ATP, NAD+, FAD

   • Where do the outputs go?: H2O is used by cells and leaves when exhaled, 34 ATP are used by the cell

   • Produces a lot of ATP used by the body

   Fermentation

   • In the absence of oxygen, fermentation releases energy from food molecules by producing ATP

   • Glycolysis must occur first

   • Lactic Acid Fermentation Equation: Pyruvic Acid + NADH → Lactic Acid + NAD+

   • Alcoholic Fermentation Equation: Pyruvic Acid + NADH → Alcohol + CO2 + NAD+

   Steps of Cellular Respiration

   1. In Glycolysis, glucose molecules are split into two pyruvates

   2. In the Krebs Cycle, the pyruvate molecules from glycolysis go to the mitochondrial matrix to find Coenzyme A. In the presence of NAD+, pyruvate gets attached to Coenzyme A nad is turned into acetyl-CoA

   3. In the Electron Transport Chain, electrons flow through the electron transport chain, causing protons to be pumped from the matrix to the intermembrane space

   Comparing Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

   • Photosynthesis “deposits” energy

   • Cellular Respiration “withdraws” energy

   • The equations for photosynthesis and cellular respiration are the reverse of each other

   • The products of one are the reactants of the other

   • Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and cellular respiration puts it back

   • Photosynthesis releases oxygen into the atmosphere, and cellular respiration uses that oxygen to release energy from food

10. Cell Cycle

    Prokaryotic Cells

    • Most prokaryotes contain a single circular DNA chromosome

    

    Eukaryotic Chromosomes

    • Eukaryotic cells have much more DNA than prokaryotes have and contain multiple chromosomes.

    • Complex DNA and protein is referred to as chromatin

    Mitosis Phases

    1. Prophase

    2. Metaphase

    3. Anaphase

    4. Telophase

    5. Cytokinesis

    Cell Cycle

    • During the cell cycle, a cell grows, prepares for division, and then divides to form daughter cells. Each daughter cell then moves into a new cell cycle of activity, growth, and division.

    

    Eukaryotic Cell Cycle

    • There are four stages: G1, S, G2, and M

    • In eukaryotes, cell division occurs in two main stages. The first stage of the process (the division of the nucleus) is called mitosis. The second stage (the division of the cytoplasm) is called cytokinesis

    Interphase Phases

    1. G1 (Cell Growth)

       • Cells do their most growing

       • Cells increase in size and synthesize new proteins and organelles

       • The G stands for “gap”

    2. S (DNA Replication)

       • Follows G1

       • New DNA is synthesized as the chromosomes are replicated

       • By the end, cells contain twice as much DNA as it did at the beginning of the phase

       • S stands for “synthesis”

    3. G2 (Preparing for Cell Division)

       • The shortest phase

       • Many of the organelles and molecules required for cell division are produced

       • Occurs after DNA replication is completed

    4. M Phase (Cell Division)

       • Produces 2 daughter cells

       • It includes mitosis and cytokinesis

       • Follows interphase

    Mitosis

    0. Interphase

       • Period of the cell cycle between cell divisions in which the cell grows

       • Divided into 4 stages: G1, S, G2, and M phase

    1. Prophase

       • The longest phase and may take up to half ot the total time required to complete mitosis

       • During prophase, the genetic material inside the nucleus condenses and the duplicated chromosomes become visible

       • Outside the nucleus, a spindle starts to form

       • A spindle helps separate the duplicated chromosomes

       • Each duplicated chromosome condenses to appear as two thick strands known as sister chromatids attached at a centromere

    2. Metaphase

       • The shortest phase

       • During metaphase, the centromeres of the duplicated chromosomes line up across the center of the cell

       • Spindle fibers connect the centromere of each chromosome to the two poles of the spindle

       • At the end, the cell is ready to separate the sister chromatids

         

    3. Anaphase

       • Begins when sister chromatids suddenly separate and begin to move apart

       • During anaphase, the chromosomes separate and move along spindle fibers to opposite ends of the cell.

       • When anaphase begins, each sister chromatid turns into an individual chromosome

    4. Telophase

       • During telophase, the chromosomes, which were distinct and condensed begin to spread out into a tangle of chromatin

       • A nuclear envelope reforms around each cluster of chromosomes, and gradually a nucleolus becomes visible in each daughter nucleus

       • Mitosis is completed, but the process of cell division has one more step

         

    Cytokinesis

    • Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm to form two separate cells

    • Cytokinesis completes the process of cell division by dividing one cell into two

    • Cytokinesis in Animal Cells

      • For most animal cells, the cell membrane is drawn inward until the cytoplasm is pinched into two nearly equal parts

    • Cytokinesis in Plant Cells

      • A structure known as the cell plate forms halfway between the divided nuclei.

        • The cell plate gradually develops into cell membranes that separate the two daughter cells.

    Regulating the Cell Cycle

    • Cancer results in uncontrolled cell growth and division.

    • Rapid growing cancer cells can be targeted by radiation or chemotherapy or by surgically removing the tumor

    Mitosis Visual Summary

    

11. DNA & Genetics

    DNA

    • There are 4 Nitrogen Bases of DNA:

      • Adenine

      • Thymine

      • Guanine

      • Cytosine

    • The bases are connected through hydrogen bonds

    • Structure:

    Punnett Squares

    • Punnett squares use mathematical probability to help predict the genotype and phenotype combinations in genetic crosses

    Summary of Mendel’s Principles

    • Mendel’s principles of heredity, observed through patterns of inheritance, form the basis of modern genetics

    • Mendel’s basic principles of inheritance can be used to study the inheritance of human traits and genetic disorders such as cystic fibrosis

    • 2 alleles/gene

    • Alleles segregate independently during the formation of sex cells *gametes) and are passed on to an offspring independently

    Mendel’s Principles of Heredity

    • The inheritance of biological characteristics is determined by individual units called genes, which are passed from parents to offspring

    • Where two or more forms (alleles) of the gene for a single trait exist, some alleles may be dominant and others may be recessive

    • In most sexually reproducing organisms, each adult has two copies of each gene- one from each parent. These genes segregate from each other when gametes are formed

    • Alleles for different genes usually segregate independently of each other

    

    Other Patterns of Inheritance

    • Some alleles are neither dominant nor recessive

    • Incomplete dominance: One allele is completely dominant over another (there is a mix)

      • Ex: The flower is mixed

      

    • Codominance: The phenotypes for both alleles are clearly expressed

      • Ex: Chicken feather color, human protein controlling blood cholesterol levels

        

    • Multiple Alleles: One gene has more than two alleles

      • Ex: Human blood, fur types, fur color in rabbits

    

    • Polygenic Traits: Many traits are produced by the interaction of several genes

      • Ex: Eye color in fruit flies, coat color in dogs

      • Trais typically show a wide variety of phenotypes

      • Based on incomplete dominance

      • Are often influenced by the environment

    

12. Evolution

    • Who is Darwin?

      • Father of evolution developed theory of natural selection

    • Evolution: A change in allele frequencies within a population over time

    • Natural Selection: Process by which organisms are most suited to their environment survive and reproduce successfully

Things to Know How to Draw

• Chloroplasts

• Mitochondria

• Prophase, Metaphase, anaphase, and telophase

• DNA formatting