Untitled Flashcards Set

Heredity and Environment

• Heredity (Nature): The passing of genetic traits from parents to offspring, influencing physical and behavioral characteristics.

• Environment (Nurture): External influences on development, such as upbringing, culture, and life experiences.

Twins and Genetics

• Dizygotic/Fraternal Twins: Twins that develop from two separate eggs fertilized by two different sperm; share 50% of their DNA.

• Monozygotic/Identical Twins: Twins that develop from a single fertilized egg that splits into two; share 100% of their DNA.

• Evolutionary Psychology: The study of how natural selection shapes behaviors and mental processes over generations.

• Behavioral Genetics: The study of how genetics and environment influence behavior.

• Natural Selection: The process where traits that enhance survival and reproduction are passed on more frequently.

• Epigenetics: The study of changes in gene expression caused by environmental factors, not changes in DNA sequence.

• Eugenics: A controversial movement aimed at improving genetic qualities in a population through selective breeding.

• Heritability: A measure of how much variation in traits within a population is due to genetic factors.

Endocrine System and Hormones

• Endocrine System: A network of glands that release hormones to regulate bodily functions.

• Hormones: Chemical messengers released by glands that influence growth, metabolism, and behavior.

• Pituitary Gland: The "master gland" that regulates other glands and releases growth hormones.

• Adrenaline: A hormone that triggers the fight-or-flight response in stressful situations.

• Leptin: A hormone that regulates hunger and energy balance by signaling fullness.

• Ghrelin: A hormone that stimulates appetite and hunger.

• Melatonin: A hormone that regulates the sleep-wake cycle.

• Oxytocin: A hormone linked to bonding, trust, and social connection.

Nervous System

• Nervous System: The body's communication network, consisting of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.

• Central Nervous System (CNS): The brain and spinal cord, which process and send information.

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Nerves outside the CNS that connect it to the rest of the body.

• Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements of muscles.

• Autonomic Nervous System: Regulates involuntary functions, like heartbeat and digestion.

  • Sympathetic: Activates the fight-or-flight response during stress.

  • Parasympathetic: Promotes rest, digestion, and relaxation.

Types of Neural Cells

• Neurons: Nerve cells that transmit information via electrical and chemical signals.

  • Sensory Neurons: Detect stimuli and send information to the CNS.

  • Motor Neurons: Send signals from the CNS to muscles for movement.

  • Interneurons: Connect neurons within the CNS for processing.

• Glial Cells: Support and protect neurons by providing nutrients and insulation.

Parts of the Neuron

• Dendrites: Branch-like structures that receive signals from other neurons.

• Soma (Cell Body): The main part of the neuron that contains the nucleus.

• Axon: A long fiber that transmits signals to other neurons or muscles.

• Myelin Sheath: A fatty layer that insulates the axon, speeding up signal transmission.

• Terminal Branches/Buttons: Endpoints of a neuron that release neurotransmitters.

• Receptor Sites: Areas on a neuron that bind to neurotransmitters.

• Synapses/Synaptic Gap: The tiny space between neurons where neurotransmitters are exchanged.

Neural Transmission

• All-or-Nothing Principle: A neuron either fires completely or not at all.

• Resting Potential: The neuron’s stable, negative charge when inactive.

• Depolarization: The process where the neuron becomes less negative, leading to firing.

• Threshold: The minimum level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential.

• Action Potential: The electrical impulse that travels down the axon.

• Refractory Period: A short time after firing when a neuron cannot fire again.

• Reuptake: The reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the releasing neuron.

• Agonist: A substance that enhances neurotransmitter activity.

• Antagonist: A substance that blocks neurotransmitter activity.

• Spinal Reflexes/Reflex Arc: Automatic responses to stimuli that bypass the brain.

• Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Strengthening of neural connections through repeated use.

• Neurotransmitters: Chemicals that transmit signals across synapses.

  • Excitatory vs Inhibitory: Excitatory increase activity; inhibitory decrease activity.

  • Acetylcholine: Involved in memory, learning, and muscle action.

  • Norepinephrine: Linked to alertness and arousal.

  • Glutamate: The primary excitatory neurotransmitter.

  • Dopamine: Affects pleasure, reward, and motor control.

  • Serotonin: Regulates mood, sleep, and appetite.

  • GABA: The primary inhibitory neurotransmitter.

  • Substance P: Transmits pain signals.

  • Endorphins: Reduce pain and boost pleasure.

Neurological Disorders

• Multiple Sclerosis: A disease where the immune system attacks the myelin sheath, impairing nerve function.

• Myasthenia Gravis: A disorder causing muscle weakness due to disrupted communication between nerves and muscles.

Psychoactive Drugs

• Depressants: Slow down the nervous system (e.g., alcohol).

• Stimulants: Increase activity in the nervous system (e.g., caffeine, cocaine).

• Hallucinogens: Alter perception and mood (e.g., marijuana).

• Opioids: Relieve pain and induce euphoria (e.g., heroin).

Drug Concepts

• Tolerance: Needing more of a substance to achieve the same effect.

• Addiction: Compulsive use of a substance despite harmful consequences.

• Physical Dependence: A body’s need for a drug to function.

• Psychological Dependence: Emotional or mental reliance on a drug.

• Withdrawal: Symptoms experienced when stopping drug use.

The Hindbrain and Midbrain

• Brainstem: Controls basic survival functions like breathing and heartbeat.

• Medulla: Regulates vital functions such as heart rate and respiration.

• Pons: Coordinates movement and connects the brain to the spinal cord.

• Cerebellum: Controls balance, coordination, and fine motor skills.

• Reticular Activating System: Regulates alertness and attention.

• Reward Center: Brain areas, like the Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) and Nucleus Accumbens, that process pleasure and motivation.

• Hippocampus: Critical for forming new memories.

Cerebral Cortex and Limbic System

• Cerebral Cortex: The brain's outer layer, responsible for higher-order thinking, perception, and decision-making.

• Limbic System: Regulates emotions, memory, and motivation. Key parts:

  • Thalamus: Relays sensory information to the cortex.

  • Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger, thirst, temperature, and the endocrine system.

  • Pituitary Gland: Releases hormones, controlled by the hypothalamus.

  • Hippocampus: Memory formation and retrieval.

  • Amygdala: Processes emotions like fear and aggression.

  • Corpus Callosum: Connects the two brain hemispheres for communication.

Brain Lobes and Functions

• Frontal Lobes: Involved in decision-making, planning, and voluntary movement.

  • Prefrontal Cortex: Handles reasoning, personality, and judgment.

  • Motor Cortex: Controls voluntary muscle movements.

• Parietal Lobes: Processes sensory information like touch.

  • Somatosensory Cortex: Detects touch, pressure, and pain.

• Occipital Lobes: Processes visual information.

• Temporal Lobes: Processes auditory information and language.

Brain Specialization

• Contralaterality: Each brain hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body.

• Brain Lateralization: The specialization of each hemisphere for certain tasks (e.g., left for language, right for spatial tasks).

• Split Brain: A condition where the corpus callosum is severed, affecting hemisphere communication.

• Broca’s Area: In the frontal lobe, controls speech production.

• Wernicke’s Area: In the temporal lobe, responsible for language comprehension.

• Aphasia: Impairment of language, affecting speech or understanding.

• Brain Plasticity (Neuroplasticity): The brain’s ability to adapt and reorganize after damage or experience.

Functional Brain Scans

• fMRI: Measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.

• Electroencephalogram (EEG): Records electrical activity in the brain.

• Lesioning: Intentional or accidental damage to brain tissue to study its functions.

Consciousness and Sleep

• Consciousness: Awareness of yourself and your environment.

• Sleep/Wake Cycle: Regulated by the body’s circadian rhythm (24-hour biological clock).

• Jet Lag: Fatigue caused by disrupting your circadian rhythm from travel.

• Shift Work: Working irregular hours that disrupt the circadian rhythm.

• Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN): Brain area that controls circadian rhythms using light cues.

Sleep Stages

• NREM Stages 1-3: Non-REM sleep stages:

  • Stage 1: Light sleep; hypnagogic sensations (e.g., falling).

  • Stage 2: Deeper sleep; features sleep spindles (bursts of brain activity) and K-complexes (large brain waves).

  • Stage 3: Deep sleep, vital for physical recovery.

• REM Sleep (Paradoxical Sleep): Brain is active, body is paralyzed; dreaming occurs.

• REM Rebound: Increased REM sleep after deprivation.

Dream Theories

• Physiological Theory: Dreams help maintain brain activity during sleep.

• Activation-Synthesis Theory: Dreams result from the brain’s attempt to make sense of random neural activity.

• Consolidation Theory: Dreams help process and store information in long-term memory.

Sleep Disorders

• Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

• Narcolepsy: Sudden, uncontrollable sleep attacks.

• REM Sleep Behavior Disorder: Acting out dreams due to a lack of muscle paralysis during REM sleep.

• Sleep Apnea: Breathing repeatedly stops and starts during sleep.

• Sleepwalking (Somnambulism): Walking or performing activities while in deep sleep.

Sensation and Perception

• Sensation: Detection of sensory stimuli by the body.

• Transduction: Converting sensory input into neural signals.

• Perception: Interpretation of sensory information by the brain.

• Bottom-Up Processing: Perception starts with raw sensory data.

• Top-Down Processing: Perception influenced by expectations and prior knowledge.

• Psychophysics: Study of the relationship between stimuli and perception.

• Sensory Adaptation: Decreased sensitivity to a constant stimulus.

• Subliminal (Subthreshold): Stimuli below conscious awareness.

• Priming: Exposure to a stimulus influences responses to later stimuli.

• Absolute Threshold: Minimum stimulus intensity detectable 50% of the time.

• Just Noticeable Difference (JND): Smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.

• Weber’s Law: JND is proportional to the intensity of the original stimulus.

Sensory Interaction

• McGurk Effect: Mismatched visual and auditory information affects perception.

• Embodied Cognition: The body influences the mind's perception.

• Synesthesia: A condition where one sense triggers another (e.g., seeing sounds as colors).

Vision

• Wavelength: Distance between peaks of light waves; determines hue (color).

• Hue: Color perceived from light's wavelength.

• Retina: Light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye.

• Fovea: Central area of the retina for sharp vision.

• Photoreceptor Cells: Convert light into neural signals.

  • Cones: Detect color and detail; work best in bright light.

  • Rods: Detect black, white, and motion; work in low light.

• Ganglion Cells: Neurons that relay visual information to the brain.

• Blind Spot: Area where the optic nerve exits the eye; no photoreceptors.

• Lens: Focuses light onto the retina through accommodation (changing shape).

• Nearsightedness/Farsightedness: Difficulty seeing far/near objects due to lens shape.

• Visual Cortex: Brain area that processes visual information.

• Trichromatic Theory: Three types of cones detect red, green, and blue.

• Opponent-Process Theory: Colors are perceived in pairs (e.g., red-green).

• Color Vision Deficiency: Difficulty distinguishing certain colors.

  • Monochromatism: Total color blindness.

  • Dichromatism: Partial color blindness.

• Prosopagnosia (Face Blindness): Inability to recognize faces.

• Blindsight: Responding to visual stimuli without conscious perception.

Audition (Hearing)

• Frequency: Determines pitch of a sound.

• Wavelength: The distance between sound waves; correlates with pitch.

• Amplitude: Determines loudness of sound.

• Pinna: Outer ear structure that funnels sound.

• Middle Ear: Amplifies sound; includes the eardrum (tympanic membrane) and ossicles (tiny bones).

• Eustachian Tube: Equalizes ear pressure.

• Inner Ear: Processes sound and balance; includes the semicircular canals and cochlea.

• Cochlea: Snail-shaped organ that transduces sound into neural signals.

• Basilar Membrane: Vibrates to sound waves, activating hair cells.

• Sound Localization: Determining sound source direction.

• Auditory Cortex: Processes sound in the brain.

Hearing Theories and Disorders

• Place Theory: Pitch depends on where the cochlea is stimulated.

• Volley Theory: Nerve cells alternate firing to encode high frequencies.

• Frequency Theory: Pitch depends on the rate of neural firing.

• Conductive Deafness: Hearing loss due to issues in the outer or middle ear.

• Sensorineural Deafness: Hearing loss due to damage in the cochlea or auditory nerves.

• Cochlear Implant: Device that bypasses damaged hair cells to restore hearing.

Chemical Senses

• Olfactory System: Processes smell.

• Pheromones: Chemicals influencing behavior, often unconsciously.

• Gustation: Sense of taste.

  • Taste Receptors: Detect five primary tastes:

    • Sweet: Sugars.

    • Sour: Acids.

    • Salty: Salts.

    • Bitter: Potential toxins.

    • Umami: Savory (e.g., glutamate).

  • Oleogustus: Fatty taste.

  • Super-, Medium-, Nontasters: Individuals’ sensitivity to taste.

Touch and Pain Sensory Systems

• Gate Control Theory: Pain is blocked or amplified by "gates" in the spinal cord.

• Phantom Limb Sensation: Feeling sensations in a missing limb.

• Nociceptors: Pain-detecting nerve cells.

Vestibular Sensory System

• Semicircular Canals: Detect head rotation and balance.

Kinesthetic Sensory System

• Kinesthesia: Awareness of body position and movement.

Psychology Concepts

• Nature-Nurture: Debate over whether genetics (nature) or environment (nurture) influences behavior more.

• Empiricism: Knowledge comes from experience and observation.

• Basic Research: Expands knowledge without immediate practical use.

• Applied Research: Solves practical, real-world problems.

• Perspective (Approach): Framework for understanding behavior and mental processes.

• Contemporary Perspectives: Current approaches in psychology:

  • Biological: Focus on brain, genetics, and neurotransmitters.

  • Physiology: Study of body functions.

  • Evolutionary: How natural selection shapes behaviors.

  • Natural Selection: Survival of the fittest traits.

    • Innate: Traits or behaviors present at birth.

  • Psychodynamic: Focus on unconscious drives and childhood experiences.

  • Behavioral: Observable behaviors influenced by environment.

  • Cognitive: Mental processes like memory and problem-solving.

  • Humanistic: Personal growth and free will.

  • Sociocultural: Influence of society and culture on behavior.

  • Positive: Focus on strengths and well-being.

  • Biopsychosocial: Interaction of biology, psychology, and social factors.

Types of Studies

• Experimental Methodologies: Manipulate variables to establish cause-effect relationships.

  • Strengths: Control over variables; causation.

  • Weaknesses: May lack real-world relevance.

• Non-Experimental Methodologies: Observational or correlational studies without manipulation.

  • Case Study: In-depth analysis of one person or group.

    • Strengths: Detailed insights.

    • Weaknesses: Hard to generalize.

  • Naturalistic Observation: Watching behavior in a natural setting.

    • Strengths: Realistic data.

    • Weaknesses: Lack of control.

  • Survey: Collecting data via questionnaires.

    • Strengths: Large samples.

    • Weaknesses: Potential for bias.

  • Correlation: Examines relationships between variables.

    • Strengths: Shows relationships.

    • Weaknesses: No causation.

  • Meta-Analysis: Combines results of multiple studies.

  • Qualitative: Open-ended, detailed data (e.g., interviews).

  • Quantitative: Numerical data (e.g., Likert scales).

  • Longitudinal vs Cross-Sectional:

    • Longitudinal: Tracks same group over time.

    • Cross-Sectional: Compares different groups at one time.

Scientific Method

• Theory: Broad explanation for phenomena.

• Hypothesis: Testable prediction.

• Falsifiable Hypothesis: Can be proven false.

• Replication: Repeating studies for verification.

• Operational Definition: Specific definition of variables for study.

• Peer Review: Experts evaluate research before publication.

Population and Sampling

• Population: Entire group being studied.

• Sampling: Selecting a subset of the population.

  • Random Sample: Everyone has equal chance of selection.

  • Convenience Sampling: Easy-to-access participants.

  • Representative Sample: Reflects the population’s characteristics.

  • Sampling Bias: Non-representative sampling errors.

  • n (Sample Size): Number of participants in a study.

• Generalization: Applying results to the wider population.

Experimental Design

• Experimental Group: Receives treatment.

• Control Group: Does not receive treatment; used for comparison.

• Variables:

  • Independent Variable: Manipulated factor.

  • Dependent Variable: Measured outcome.

  • Confounding Variable: Uncontrolled factor affecting results.

• Experimenter Bias: Researcher influences results.

• Social Desirability Bias: Participants give "acceptable" answers.

• Self-Report Bias: Inaccurate answers due to memory or honesty.

• Third Variable: Hidden factor affecting correlations.

• Double-Blind Study: Neither researchers nor participants know group assignments.

• Single-Blind Study: Only participants are unaware of group assignments.

• Placebo/Placebo Effect: Inactive treatment producing effects due to belief.

• Random Selection: Participants randomly chosen from population.

• Random Assignment: Participants randomly placed in groups.

• Hawthorne Effect: Participants change behavior due to awareness of being studied.

• Cohort Effect: Results influenced by group characteristics.

• Research Confederate: Actor participating in the study to influence participants.

Statistics

• Descriptive Statistics: Summarize data.

  • Measures of Central Tendency:

    • Mean: Average.

    • Median: Middle value.

    • Mode: Most frequent value.

  • Measures of Variance:

    • Range: Difference between highest and lowest values.

    • Standard Deviation: Average spread from the mean.

  • Percentile Rank: Position relative to others.

  • Normal Curve: Bell-shaped distribution.

  • Positive vs Negative Skews: Asymmetrical data.

  • Bimodal Distribution: Two peaks.

  • Regression Toward the Mean: Extreme scores tend to average out.

• Inferential Statistics: Determine if results are significant.

  • Scatterplot: Graph showing variable relationships.

  • Correlation Coefficient (r): Strength/direction of variable relationships (-1 to +1).

  • Statistical Significance (p-value): Likelihood results aren’t due to chance.

  • Effect Sizes: Magnitude of differences or relationships.

Ethics in Research

• Ethics Checklist: Guidelines ensuring participant welfare.

• Institutional Review Board (IRB): Reviews and approves research studies.

• Informed Consent: Participants agree after learning study details.

• Protect Participants from Harm: Ensure physical and emotional safety.

• Confidentiality or Anonymity: Protect participant identity.

• Deception: Allowed if justified and followed by debriefing (explanation).

• Animal Research Ethical Standards: Humane treatment and necessity.

• Human Ethical Research Standards: Protect rights, safety, and dignity.

Important Notes

• Correlation ≠ Causation!

• Random Selection is for sampling; Random Assignment is for experimental grouping.

• Generalization depends on random sampling, adequate sample size, and representativeness.

Perception

• Bottom-up Processing: Sensory information guides perception.

• Top-down Processing: Prior knowledge and expectations shape perception.

• Schema: Mental framework for organizing information.

• Perceptual Set: Predisposition to perceive things in a certain way.

• Gestalt Principles: Rules for organizing sensory input into meaningful patterns.

  • Closure: Filling in gaps to create a whole image.

  • Figure & Ground: Differentiating an object (figure) from its background.

  • Proximity: Grouping elements close together.

  • Similarity: Grouping similar elements.

• Selective Attention: Focusing on a specific stimulus while ignoring others.

• Cocktail Party Effect: Hearing your name in a noisy environment.

• Inattentional Blindness: Missing visible objects when attention is elsewhere.

• Change Blindness: Failure to notice changes in the environment.

• Visual Cliff: Test of depth perception in infants.

Depth Perception

• Binocular Cues: Depth cues requiring both eyes.

  • Retinal Disparity: Different images from each eye create depth.

  • Convergence: Eye muscles strain when objects are close.

• Monocular Cues: Depth cues from one eye.

  • Relative Clarity: Clearer objects appear closer.

  • Relative Size: Larger objects appear closer.

  • Texture Gradient: Finer textures appear further away.

  • Linear Perspective: Parallel lines converge in the distance.

  • Interposition: Objects blocking others are closer.

• Perceptual Constancies: Perception of size, shape, and color remains constant despite changes.

Gestalt Perceptions & Optical Illusions

• Phi Phenomenon: Illusion of motion from lights blinking in sequence.

• Ponzo Illusion: Lines of the same length appear different sizes based on background.

• Necker Cube: Cube perception switches between orientations.

• Moon Illusion: Moon appears larger near the horizon.

• Müller-Lyer Illusion: Arrows affect perceived line length.

Cognition

• Thinking: Mental manipulation of information.

• Metacognition: Thinking about one's own thinking.

• Concepts: Mental categories for grouping information.

• Prototypes: Best examples of a concept.

• Schemas: Frameworks for understanding.

• Assimilation: Fitting new info into existing schemas.

• Accommodation: Changing schemas for new info.

• Cognitive Script: Sequence of expected events.

• Problem-Solving: Finding solutions to challenges.

  • Algorithms: Step-by-step problem-solving method.

  • Heuristics: Shortcut strategies for solving problems.

  • Representative Heuristic: Judging based on similarity to a prototype.

  • Availability Heuristic: Judging based on easily recalled info.

Memory

• Explicit Memories (Declarative): Conscious memories of facts/events.

  • Episodic: Personal experiences.

  • Semantic: General knowledge.

• Implicit Memories: Unconscious memories like skills.

  • Procedural: Skills like riding a bike.

  • Prospective Memories: Remembering future tasks.

• Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Strengthening of neural connections.

• Memory Models:

  • Information Processing: Encoding, storage, and retrieval.

  • Working Memory: Temporary storage for active use.

  • Sensory Memory: Brief recording of sensory info.

Retrieval & Forgetting

• Retrieval: Accessing stored memories.

  • Recognition: Identifying info.

  • Context-Dependent Memory: Recall improved by similar environments.

  • Mood-Congruent Memory: Recall influenced by mood.

• Forgetting:

  • Encoding Failure: Info never entered memory.

  • Interference:

    • Proactive: Old info interferes with new.

    • Retroactive: New info interferes with old.

  • Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: Failing to retrieve familiar info.

Intelligence

• Psychometrics: Study of measuring mental capabilities.

• g Factor: General intelligence underlying specific abilities.

• Crystallized Intelligence: Accumulated knowledge.

• Fluid Intelligence: Problem-solving and adaptability.

• Multiple Intelligences: Gardner's theory of diverse abilities.

• Triarchic Theory: Sternberg’s analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.

• IQ: Standardized measure of intelligence.

• Emotional Intelligence (EQ): Managing emotions and relationships.