Unit 1 and 2 Psych
Unit 1 Review: Methods, Research, Stats
Psych: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes, blending concepts from philosophy and biology/physiology.
Wilhelm Wundt: A German physiologist who established the first psychology laboratory in 1879, marking the formal beginning of modern psychology.
William James: An American psychologist known for developing functionalism, which focused on the purpose and function of the mind and behavior.
Functionalism V. Structuralism:
Functionalism: A school of thought emphasizing the adaptive purpose and function of mental processes and behavior in an organism's interaction with its environment.
Structuralism: A school of thought focused on breaking down mental processes into their most basic components through introspection.
7 Psych Perspectives:
Humanism: Emphasizes human potential, free will, self-actualization, and the importance of personal growth.
Psychoanalytic: A perspective, largely based on Sigmund Freud's theories, that emphasizes the influence of unconscious drives, conflicts, and early childhood experiences on behavior.
Biopsychology: Examines the biological bases of psychological processes, including the role of genetics, hormones, and the nervous system.
Evolutionary: Explains behavior and mental processes in terms of their adaptive value and how they have been shaped by natural selection over generations.
Behavioral: Focuses on observable behavior and how it is learned through conditioning, without reference to internal mental states.
Cognitive: Studies mental processes such as perception, memory, thinking, language, and problem-solving.
Sociocultural: Examines how social and cultural environments and interactions influence behavior and mental processes.
Hindsight Bias: The tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that one would have predicted or known it beforehand ("I knew it all along").
Overconfidence: The tendency to be more certain than correct, often overestimating the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments.
Longitudinal versus cross sectional research:
Longitudinal Research: A research design where the same group of individuals is studied repeatedly over an extended period of time.
Cross-Sectional Research: A research design that compares different groups of individuals (e.g., different age groups) at a single point in time.
Descriptive Research: Research methods that aim to observe and describe behavior, without manipulating variables or establishing cause-and-effect relationships.
Case Study: An intensive, in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or situation.
Survey: A research method involving the collection of data from a sample of individuals through questionnaires or interviews to assess self-reported attitudes or behaviors.
Naturalistic Observation: Observing and recording behavior in its natural environment without manipulation or intervention by the researcher.
Correlation Research: A research method that investigates the statistical relationship between two variables, showing how they vary together.
Scatter Plot: A graphical representation of the relationship between two variables, with each point representing a pair of data values.
Line of Best Fit: A line drawn through the points on a scatter plot that best represents the overall trend of the data.
Correlation Coefficient: A statistical measure (r) that quantifies the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables, ranging from -1.0 to +1.0.
+/-: Refers to the direction of a correlation:
+(positive) indicates that as one variable increases, the other also increases;-(negative) indicates that as one variable increases, the other decreases.No relationship: Indicated by a correlation coefficient close to 0, meaning there is no linear association between the variables.
Correlation DOES NOT equal causation: A fundamental principle stating that while two variables may be related, one does not necessarily cause the other.
Show relationships: The primary purpose of correlational research is to identify patterns or associations between variables.
Makes predictions: Correlational research allows for predictions about one variable based on the value of another, even without establishing causation.
Experiments: A research method where researchers manipulate one or more independent variables to observe their effect on a dependent variable, allowing for conclusions about cause-and-effect.
IV (Independent Variable): The variable that is manipulated or changed by the experimenter.
DV (Dependent Variable): The variable that is measured and expected to change in response to the manipulation of the independent variable.
Operational Def (Operational Definition): A clear, concise statement of either how a variable will be measured or how a manipulation will be carried out.
Population: The entire group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying and from which a sample is drawn.
Random Sample: A sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected, ensuring representativeness.
Random Assignment: The process of assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, minimizing pre-existing differences between the groups.
Experimental Group: The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or manipulation of the independent variable.
Control Group: The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment; it serves as a baseline for comparison with the experimental group.
Experimenter Bias: A phenomenon where a researcher's expectations or beliefs unconsciously influence the outcome of the study.
Participant Bias: The tendency for participants' expectations or beliefs about a study's purpose to influence their behavior or responses.
Blind: A procedure in which participants are unaware of whether they are in the experimental group or the control group.
Double Blind: A procedure in which both the participants and the researchers interacting with them are unaware of who is in the experimental or control group.
Placebo: An inert substance or inactive treatment given to the control group to account for the psychological effect of receiving a treatment.
Hawthorne Effect: The tendency of individuals to improve or modify their behavior in response to being observed or being part of a study.
Confounding Variables: Factors other than the independent variable that could potentially affect the dependent variable, making it difficult to determine the true cause-and-effect relationship.
Generalize: The extent to which the findings and conclusions from a research study can be applied to a broader population or different situations.
Statistical Significance: A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance, typically indicated by a p-value less than 0.05.
p-value: The probability of obtaining an observed result (or something more extreme) if the null hypothesis were true; a low p-value suggests the result is statistically significant.
Measures of central tendency: Statistical values that describe the center or typical value of a data set.
Mean: The arithmetic average of a set of scores, calculated by summing all values and dividing by the number of values.
Median: The middle score in a distribution when the scores are arranged in numerical order.
Mode: The score that occurs most frequently in a data set.
Measures of variability: Statistical values that describe how spread out or dispersed the scores in a data set are.
Range: The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
Standard Deviation: A measure of the average amount by which scores deviate from the mean; a larger standard deviation indicates greater variability.
Normal Distributions: A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that represents the distribution of many natural phenomena, with most data points clustered around the mean.
Skewed distributions: + and -, outliers, what happens to measures of central tendency?:
Skewed Distributions: Distributions that are asymmetrical, with a tail extending more to one side than the other.
+ (Positive/Right Skew): A distribution where the tail extends to the right; the mean is typically greater than the median, which is greater than the mode.
- (Negative/Left Skew): A distribution where the tail extends to the left; the mean is typically less than the median, which is less than the mode.
Outliers: Extreme values in a data set that fall far from other data points, significantly affecting the mean.
What happens to measures of central tendency?: In skewed distributions, the mean is pulled in the direction of the skew (towards the tail), making the median a more representative measure of the typical score.
Inferential statistics: Statistical methods that allow researchers to make generalizations or draw conclusions about a population based on data from a sample.
MANOVAs (Multivariate Analysis of Variance): A statistical test used to analyze experiments with multiple dependent variables simultaneously.
ANOVAs (Analysis of Variance): A statistical test used to compare the means of three or more groups.
t-tests: A statistical test used to compare the means of two groups.
Statistical significance (goes with experiments): The likelihood that observed results are not due to chance, confirming the effect of the independent variable in experiments.
Validity V. Reliability:
Validity: The extent to which a test or research method accurately measures what it is intended to measure.
Reliability: The consistency of a measure, yielding similar results under similar conditions each time it is used.
APA Ethical Guidelines for animals and humans: A set of principles established by the American Psychological Association to ensure the ethical treatment and welfare of research participants.
Informed Consent: The ethical principle that research participants must be fully informed about the nature of the research and its potential risks before agreeing to participate.
Debrief: The process of informing participants about the true purpose and full details of a study after their participation, especially if deception was used.
Anonymity: Ensuring that participants' identities are unknown to the researchers and cannot be linked to their data.
Coercion: The act of forcing or pressuring someone to participate in a study, which is ethically prohibited.
Deception: Purposefully misleading participants about the true nature of a study, which must be justified by research value and followed by debriefing.
No Harm: An ethical standard requiring researchers to protect participants from physical or psychological harm during a study.
Unit 2 Neurobiology
Neurons: The fundamental units of the nervous system, specialized cells that transmit electrical and chemical signals throughout the body.
Parts:
Axon: A long, slender projection of a neuron that conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands.
Dendrite: Branch-like extensions of a neuron that receive chemical messages from other neurons.
Myelin Sheath: A fatty insulating layer that surrounds and protects some axons, significantly increasing the speed of nerve impulse transmission.
Terminal Buttons: Small knob-like structures at the end of an axon that contain and release neurotransmitters into the synapse.
Cell Body/Soma: The main part of the neuron that contains the nucleus and maintains the cell's life functions.
Synapse: The microscopic gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite (or cell body) of another, where chemical communication occurs.
Process of firing (Action Potential): A brief, rapid reversal of electrical charge that sweeps down the axon, serving as the neuron's message.
Electrochemical process: The communication within and between neurons involving both electrical signals (action potentials) and chemical signals (neurotransmitters).
All or none: The principle that a neuron either fires a full-strength action potential or does not fire at all; the strength of the stimulus does not affect the intensity of the action potential.
Reuptake: The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron after they have transmitted a signal.
Refractory Period: A brief period following an action potential during which a neuron is unable to fire another action potential.
Resting State: The neuron's stable, negatively charged state when it is not firing an action potential.
Electrical charges: The movement of positively and negatively charged ions (e.g., sodium, potassium) across the neuron's membrane, creating the electrical potential for nerve impulses.
Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse from one neuron to another, affecting various functions.
Dopamine: A neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, pleasure, motor control, and attention. Imbalances are linked to Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia.
Serotonin: A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. Low levels are often associated with depression.
AcH (Acetylcholine): A neurotransmitter involved in muscle contraction (in the peripheral nervous system), learning, memory, and attention. Linked to Alzheimer's disease.
Endorphins: Natural opioid-like neurotransmitters that reduce pain and produce feelings of euphoria.
GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid): The primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, reducing neural excitability and promoting calmness.
Glutamate: The primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, playing a crucial role in learning and memory formation.
Norepinephrine: A neurotransmitter involved in alertness, arousal, attention, and the body's "fight-or-flight" response.
Afferent v. Efferent Neurons:
Afferent Neurons (Sensory Neurons): Neurons that carry sensory information from body tissues and sensory organs towards the central nervous system.
Efferent Neurons (Motor Neurons): Neurons that carry motor commands from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.
Autonomic NS (Autonomic Nervous System): A division of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions such as heart rate, digestion, breathing, and glandular activity.
Somatic NS (Somatic Nervous System): A division of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.
Sympathetic V. Parasympathetic NS:
Sympathetic NS: A subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations (e.g., "fight-or-flight" response).
Parasympathetic NS: A subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy and returning it to a resting state.
Reflexes: Automatic, involuntary responses to sensory stimuli that involve a simple neural pathway (reflex arc) typically without direct brain involvement.
Brain Imaging: Techniques used to visualize and study the structure and/or function of the brain.
Lesions: Areas of damaged brain tissue resulting from injury, disease, or experimental manipulation, used to infer the function of those areas. (Study structure and implications for function)
EEG (Electroencephalogram): A technique that measures electrical activity (brainwaves) in the brain through electrodes placed on the scalp. (Studies function)
CAT (Computed Axial Tomography scan): An imaging technique that uses X-rays to create cross-sectional images of the brain's internal structures. (Studies structure)
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of soft tissues, including brain structures. (Studies structure)
PET (Positron Emission Tomography scan): An imaging technique that shows brain activity by tracking the consumption of a radioactive glucose tracer in different brain regions. (Studies function)
Functional MRI (fMRI): A specialized MRI technique that measures changes in blood flow to detect neural activity in different parts of the brain. (Studies both structure and function)
Hindbrain: The lowest and oldest part of the brain, located at the base of the skull, responsible for fundamental life-sustaining functions.
Medulla: A structure in the brainstem that controls vital involuntary functions such as heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, and reflexes.
Pons: A structure in the brainstem that serves as a bridge between the cerebellum and the rest of the brain, involved in sleep, respiration, movement, and sensory information.
Cerebellum: A large structure at the back of the brain, important for coordinating voluntary movements, balance, posture, and motor learning.
Midbrain: The small central part of the brainstem, involved in sensory processing, sleep and wakefulness, and motor control.
Reticular Formation: A network of neurons extending through the brainstem, involved in regulating arousal, sleep-wake cycles, and attention.
Forebrain: The largest and most complex part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions, emotions, and voluntary actions.
Thalamus: A major sensory relay station in the brain, directing nearly all sensory information (except smell) to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex.
Hypothalamus: A small but crucial brain structure that regulates basic drives (hunger, thirst, body temperature, sexual behavior) and controls the pituitary gland.
Amygdala: A limbic system structure involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression, and in forming emotional memories.
Hippocampus: A limbic system structure vital for the formation of new long-term memories.
Cerebral Cortex: The thin, wrinkled outer layer of the cerebrum, responsible for higher-level cognitive functions such as consciousness, thought, language, and perception.
Left hemisphere: The hemisphere typically dominant for language processing (Broca's and Wernicke's areas), logic, analytical thinking, and sequential processing.
Right hemisphere: The hemisphere typically dominant for spatial reasoning, visual-perceptual tasks, creativity, art appreciation, and emotional intuition.
Corpus Callosum: A large bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres, enabling communication between them.
Split Brain: A condition resulting from the surgical severance of the corpus callosum, leading to a separation of the brain's hemispheres.
Frontal Lobe: The largest lobe of the cerebral cortex, located at the front of the brain.
Broca’s Area: A region in the left frontal lobe crucial for speech production and articulate language.
Motor Cortex: An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements of the body.
Judgment/reasoning center: Refers to the frontal lobe's role in executive functions such as planning, decision-making, problem-solving, and impulse control.
Phineas Gage: A famous case study of a man who sustained severe damage to his frontal lobe, leading to profound changes in personality and social behavior without affecting his intelligence or memory.
Parietal Lobe: A lobe of the cerebral cortex located behind the frontal lobe, involved in processing sensory information.
Sensory Cortex (Somatosensory Cortex): An area within the parietal lobe that processes sensory information from the body, including touch, temperature, pain, and pressure.
Occipital Lobe: The rearmost lobe of the cerebral cortex, primarily responsible for visual processing.
Vision: The function of processing visual information sent from the eyes to the brain.
Temporal Lobe: A lobe on the side of the cerebral cortex, involved in auditory processing, memory, and language comprehension.
Hearing: The function of processing auditory information received from the ears.
Wernicke’s Area: A region in the left temporal lobe critical for language comprehension and understanding spoken and written words.
Aphasia – Broca’s and Wernicke’s:
Aphasia: An impairment of language, affecting the production or comprehension of speech and writing, often caused by brain damage.
Broca’s Aphasia: A type of aphasia characterized by difficulty with speech production, resulting in slow, laborious, and non-fluent speech.
Wernicke’s Aphasia: A type of aphasia characterized by difficulty with language comprehension, leading to fluent but often meaningless speech.
Brain Plasticity: The brain's remarkable ability to change, adapt, and reorganize itself throughout life, forming new neural connections in response to experience or injury.
Endocrine System: A system of glands that produce and secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions and maintain homeostasis.
Hormones: Chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream to target cells and organs, influencing growth, metabolism, mood, and more.
Glands:
Pituitary: Often called the "master gland," it secretes hormones that control other endocrine glands and regulate growth and water balance.
Adrenal: Glands located atop the kidneys that produce hormones like adrenaline (epinephrine) and cortisol, involved in stress response.
Thyroid: A gland in the neck that produces hormones regulating metabolism and energy levels.
Testes: Male reproductive glands that produce testosterone and sperm.
Ovaries: Female reproductive glands that produce estrogen and progesterone and eggs.
Pancreas: An organ that produces insulin and glucagon, hormones that regulate blood sugar levels.
Genetics: The scientific study of heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics.
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid): The hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms, carrying the genetic instructions for development, functioning, growth, and reproduction.
Dominant/Recessive:
Dominant: An allele whose trait is always expressed in the phenotype when it is present, even if only one copy is inherited.
Recessive: An allele whose trait is only expressed in the phenotype when two copies of the allele are inherited (i.e., when the individual is homozygous for that allele).
Phenotype/Genotype:
Phenotype: The observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism, resulting from the interaction of its genotype with environmental factors.
Genotype: The complete set of genes an organism possesses; its genetic makeup.
Homozygous/Heterozygous:
Homozygous: Having two identical alleles for a particular gene.
Heterozygous: Having two different alleles for a particular gene.
Twin studies: Research that compares traits and behaviors in identical and fraternal twins to estimate the relative contributions of genetic and environmental influences.
Identical V. Fraternal:
Identical Twins (Monozygotic): Twins developed from a single fertilized egg that splits, resulting in two individuals who are genetically identical.
Fraternal Twins (Dizygotic): Twins developed from two separate fertilized eggs, making them genetically no more similar than regular siblings.
Genetic Abnormalities: Conditions caused by changes or errors in an individual's genetic material.
Down’s Syndrome (Trisomy 21): A genetic disorder caused by the presence of an extra full or partial copy of chromosome 21, leading to intellectual disability and characteristic physical features.
Turner’s Syndrome: A chromosomal disorder affecting females, characterized by the absence of one X chromosome (XO), leading to distinctive physical features and developmental challenges.
Klinefelter’s Syndrome: A chromosomal disorder affecting males, characterized by the presence of an extra X chromosome (XXY), leading to reduced fertility and specific physical and developmental traits.