Unit 1 and 2 Psych
Inferential statistics: Statistical methods that allow researchers to make generalizations or draw conclusions about a population based on data from a sample.
MANOVAs (Multivariate Analysis of Variance): A statistical test used to analyze experiments with multiple dependent variables simultaneously.
ANOVAs (Analysis of Variance): A statistical test used to compare the means of three or more groups.
t-tests: A statistical test used to compare the means of two groups.
Statistical significance (goes with experiments): The likelihood that observed results are not due to chance, confirming the effect of the independent variable in experiments.
Unit 2 Neurobio
Terminal Buttons: Small knob-like structures at the end of an axon that contain and release neurotransmitters into the synapse.
Process of firing (Action Potential): A brief, rapid reversal of electrical charge that sweeps down the axon, serving as the neuron's message.
Electrochemical process: The communication within and between neurons involving both electrical signals (action potentials) and chemical signals (neurotransmitters).
All or none: The principle that a neuron either fires a full-strength action potential or does not fire at all; the strength of the stimulus does not affect the intensity of the action potential.
Reuptake: The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron after they have transmitted a signal.
Refractory Period: A brief period following an action potential during which a neuron is unable to fire another action potential.
Resting State: The neuron's stable, negatively charged state when it is not firing an action potential.
Electrical charges: The movement of positively and negatively charged ions (e.g., sodium, potassium) across the neuron's membrane, creating the electrical potential for nerve impulses.
Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse from one neuron to another, affecting various functions.
Dopamine: A neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, pleasure, motor control, and attention. Imbalances are linked to Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia.
Serotonin: A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. Low levels are often associated with depression.
AcH (Acetylcholine): A neurotransmitter involved in muscle contraction (in the peripheral nervous system), learning, memory, and attention. Linked to Alzheimer's disease.
Endorphins: Natural opioid-like neurotransmitters that reduce pain and produce feelings of euphoria.
GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid): The primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, reducing neural excitability and promoting calmness.
Glutamate: The primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, playing a crucial role in learning and memory formation.
Norepinephrine: A neurotransmitter involved in alertness, arousal, attention, and the body's "fight-or-flight" response.
Afferent v. Efferent Neurons:
Afferent Neurons (Sensory Neurons): Neurons that carry sensory information from body tissues and sensory organs towards the central nervous system.
Efferent Neurons (Motor Neurons): Neurons that carry motor commands from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.
Autonomic NS (Autonomic Nervous System): A division of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions such as heart rate, digestion, breathing, and glandular activity.
Somatic NS (Somatic Nervous System): A division of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.
Sympathetic V. Parasympathetic NS:
Sympathetic NS: A subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations (e.g., "fight-or-flight" response).
Parasympathetic NS: A subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy and returning it to a resting state.
Reflexes: Automatic, involuntary responses to sensory stimuli that involve a simple neural pathway (reflex arc) typically without direct brain involvement.
Brain Imaging: Techniques used to visualize and study the structure and/or function of the brain.
Lesions: Areas of damaged brain tissue resulting from injury, disease, or experimental manipulation, used to infer the function of those areas. (Study structure and implications for function)
EEG (Electroencephalogram): A technique that measures electrical activity (brainwaves) in the brain through electrodes placed on the scalp. (Studies function)
CAT (Computed Axial Tomography scan): An imaging technique that uses X-rays to create cross-sectional images of the brain's internal structures. (Studies structure)
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of soft tissues, including brain structures. (Studies structure)
PET (Positron Emission Tomography scan): An imaging technique that shows brain activity by tracking the consumption of a radioactive glucose tracer in different brain regions. (Studies function)
Functional MRI (fMRI): A specialized MRI technique that measures changes in blood flow to detect neural activity in different parts of the brain. (Studies both structure and function)
Hindbrain: The lowest and oldest part of the brain, located at the base of the skull, responsible for fundamental life-sustaining functions.
Medulla: A structure in the brainstem that controls vital involuntary functions such as heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, and reflexes.
Pons: A structure in the brainstem that serves as a bridge between the cerebellum and the rest of the brain, involved in sleep, respiration, movement, and sensory information.
Cerebellum: A large structure at the back of the brain, important for coordinating voluntary movements, balance, posture, and motor learning.
Midbrain: The small central part of the brainstem, involved in sensory processing, sleep and wakefulness, and motor control.
Reticular Formation: A network of neurons extending through the brainstem, involved in regulating arousal, sleep-wake cycles, and attention.
Forebrain: The largest and most complex part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions, emotions, and voluntary actions.
Thalamus: A major sensory relay station in the brain, directing nearly all sensory information (except smell) to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex.
Hypothalamus: A small but crucial brain structure that regulates basic drives (hunger, thirst, body temperature, sexual behavior) and controls the pituitary gland.
Amygdala: A limbic system structure involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression, and in forming emotional memories.
Hippocampus: A limbic system structure vital for the formation of new long-term memories.
Cerebral Cortex: The thin, wrinkled outer layer of the cerebrum, responsible for higher-level cognitive functions such as consciousness, thought, language, and perception.
Left hemisphere: The hemisphere typically dominant for language processing (Broca's and Wernicke's areas), logic, analytical thinking, and sequential processing.
Right hemisphere: The hemisphere typically dominant for spatial reasoning, visual-perceptual tasks, creativity, art appreciation, and emotional intuition.
Corpus Callosum: A large bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres, enabling communication between them.
Split Brain: A condition resulting from the surgical severance of the corpus callosum, leading to a separation of the brain's hemispheres.
Frontal Lobe: The largest lobe of the cerebral cortex, located at the front of the brain.
Broca’s Area: A region in the left frontal lobe crucial for speech production and articulate language.
Motor Cortex: An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements of the body.
Judgment/reasoning center: Refers to the frontal lobe's role in executive functions such as planning, decision-making, problem-solving, and impulse control.
Phineas Gage: A famous case study of a man who sustained severe damage to his frontal lobe, leading to profound changes in personality and social behavior without affecting his intelligence or memory.
Parietal Lobe: A lobe of the cerebral cortex located behind the frontal lobe, involved in processing sensory information.
Sensory Cortex (Somatosensory Cortex): An area within the parietal lobe that processes sensory information from the body, including touch, temperature, pain, and pressure.
Occipital Lobe: The rearmost lobe of the cerebral cortex, primarily responsible for visual processing.
Vision: The function of processing visual information sent from the eyes to the brain.
Temporal Lobe: A lobe on the side of the cerebral cortex, involved in auditory processing, memory, and language comprehension.
Hearing: The function of processing auditory information received from the ears.
Wernicke’s Area: A region in the left temporal lobe critical for language comprehension and understanding spoken and written words.
Aphasia – Broca’s and Wernicke’s:
Aphasia: An impairment of language, affecting the production or comprehension of speech and writing, often caused by brain damage.
Broca’s Aphasia: A type of aphasia characterized by difficulty with speech production, resulting in slow, laborious, and non-fluent speech.
Wernicke’s Aphasia: A type of aphasia characterized by difficulty with language comprehension, leading to fluent but often meaningless speech.
Brain Plasticity: The brain's remarkable ability to change, adapt, and reorganize itself throughout life, forming new neural connections in response to experience or injury.
Endocrine System: A system of glands that produce and secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions and maintain homeostasis.
Hormones: Chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream to target cells and organs, influencing growth, metabolism, mood, and more.
Glands:
Pituitary: Often called the "master gland," it secretes hormones that control other endocrine glands and regulate growth and water balance.
Adrenal: Glands located atop the kidneys that produce hormones like adrenaline (epinephrine) and cortisol, involved in stress response.
Thyroid: A gland in the neck that produces hormones regulating metabolism and energy levels.
Testes: Male reproductive glands that produce testosterone and sperm.
Ovaries: Female reproductive glands that produce estrogen and progesterone and eggs.
Pancreas: An organ that produces insulin and glucagon, hormones that regulate blood sugar levels.
Genetics: The scientific study of heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics.
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid): The hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms, carrying the genetic instructions for development, functioning, growth, and reproduction.
Dominant/Recessive:
Dominant: An allele whose trait is always expressed in the phenotype when it is present, even if only one copy is inherited.
Recessive: An allele whose trait is only expressed in the phenotype when two copies of the allele are inherited (i.e., when the individual is homozygous for that allele).
Phenotype/Genotype:
Phenotype: The observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism, resulting from the interaction of its genotype with environmental factors.
Genotype: The complete set of genes an organism possesses; its genetic makeup.
Homozygous/Heterozygous:
Homozygous: Having two identical alleles for a particular gene.
Heterozygous: Having two different alleles for a particular gene.
Twin studies: Research that compares traits and behaviors in identical and fraternal twins to estimate the relative contributions of genetic and environmental influences.
Identical V. Fraternal:
Identical Twins (Monozygotic): Twins developed from a single fertilized egg that splits, resulting in two individuals who are genetically identical.
Fraternal Twins (Dizygotic): Twins developed from two separate fertilized eggs, making them genetically no more similar than regular siblings.
Genetic Abnormalities: Conditions caused by changes or errors in an individual's genetic material.
Down’s Syndrome (Trisomy 21): A genetic disorder caused by the presence of an extra full or partial copy of chromosome 21, leading to intellectual disability and characteristic physical features.
Turner’s Syndrome: A chromosomal disorder affecting females, characterized by the absence of one X chromosome (XO), leading to distinctive physical features and developmental challenges.
Klinefelter’s Syndrome: A chromosomal disorder affecting males, characterized by the presence of an extra X chromosome (XXY), leading to reduced fertility and specific physical and developmental traits.