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CH3 MOD 9

Biological Psychology: The study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. Also referred to as behavioral neuroscience, neuropsychology, or biopsychology.

Neurons: Nerve cells that serve as the building blocks of the nervous system.

Dendrites: Branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

Axon: The neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

Myelin Sheath: A fatty tissue layer that insulates axons and speeds neural impulses.

Action Potential: A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

Resting Potential: The state where the outside of an axon has more positively charged ions, and the inside has more negatively charged ions.

Selective Permeability: The axon’s selective property of allowing only certain ions to pass through its membrane.

Depolarization: The process in which positive ions enter the neuron, making it more likely to fire an action potential.

Refractory Period: A short period after a neuron fires when it cannot fire again until it returns to its resting state.

Threshold: The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

All-or-None Response: Neurons either fire completely or don’t fire at all; there is no partial firing.

Neurons communicate through electrical and chemical signals.

Synapse: Tiny gap between neurons where communication occurs.

Action potential: Electrical signal that triggers neurotransmitter release.

Neurotransmitters: Chemicals that cross the synapse to send messages.

Reuptake: Process of reabsorbing excess neurotransmitters by the sending neuron.

Acetylcholine (ACh): Muscle action, learning, memory; linked to Alzheimer's and paralysis.

***Dopamine: Movement, learning, emotion; oversupply linked to schizophrenia, undersupply to Parkinson’s.

Serotonin: Mood, hunger, sleep; low levels linked to depression.

Norepinephrine: Alertness, arousal; low levels linked to depressed mood.

GABA: Inhibitory neurotransmitter; low levels linked to seizures, tremors, insomnia.

Glutamate: Excitatory neurotransmitter; oversupply linked to migraines, seizures.

Endorphins: Natural opiates that reduce pain and boost mood (e.g., runner’s high).

Phrenology: Proposed by Frank Gall

• Studying bumps on the skill

• Was right about localization of function

  • Hurts reputation of psych

    • Lobotomies much more damaging

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Ch 3 MOD 10

Nervous System Overview

• The nervous system: Processes information and sends orders to the body.

• Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord; decision-maker.

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Gathers information, transmits CNS decisions.

• Nerves: Bundles of axons linking CNS to sensory receptors, muscles, and glands.

Neurons

• Sensory neurons: Carry info from body tissues and sensory receptors to CNS.

• Motor neurons: Transmit instructions from CNS to muscles and glands.

• Interneurons: Process information between sensory input and motor output, mostly in the brain.

• Cell body = soma

• Terminal Branches → Terminal buttons →End Buttons →Synaptic Knobs

Peripheral Nervous System Components

• Somatic nervous system: Voluntary control of skeletal muscles.

• Autonomic nervous system (ANS): Controls glands, internal organ muscles.

  • Sympathetic nervous system: Arouses, expends energy (fight-or-flight).

  • Parasympathetic nervous system: Calms, conserves energy (rest-and-digest).

Central Nervous System Functions

• CNS connects to the body through spinal cord pathways.

• Reflexes: Simple automatic responses (e.g., knee-jerk, pain reflex).

• Neural networks: Neurons form layers of connections for fast communication and learning.

Endocrine System

• Endocrine system: Slower communication system using hormones.

• Hormones influence sex, food, aggression.

• Pituitary gland: Master gland controlled by hypothalamus; regulates growth, stress, and other glands.

• Fight-or-flight: Adrenal glands release epinephrine and norepinephrine to increase energy.

• Endocrine system interacts closely with the nervous system

• Nodes of Ranvier - the spaces between the myelin sheath

  • Kepps the charge moving through the axon

• Myelin Sheath - Similar to electrical wiring 

  • Very important

  • Connection to Multiple

    • Sclerosis (MS)

• Action Potential similar to flushing toilet

  • All or none response = strength of each flush

  • Threshold = softer push of the lever means no flush bc do not rhea threshold

  • Refractory period = cant flush twice in a row if the tank has not had time to refill

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CH3 MOD 11

Lesion: Destruction of brain tissue, either naturally or experimentally (e.g., hypothalamus damage affecting eating in rats).

EEG (Electroencephalogram): Measures brain's electrical activity through electrodes on the scalp (e.g., used to monitor brain waves in epilepsy).

CT (Computed Tomography) Scan: X-ray images combined to show brain structure (e.g., used to detect brain damage).

PET (Positron Emission Tomography) Scan: Tracks radioactive glucose to show active brain areas during tasks.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of brain structure.

fMRI (Functional MRI): Shows brain function by tracking blood flow in active areas (e.g., visual processing or emotions).

The Brainstem

• Location: Oldest part, where the spinal cord enters the skull.

• Functions: Controls survival functions like heartbeat and breathing. The medulla controls heartbeat, while the pons coordinates movement.

• Crossover Point: Most nerves from each side of the brain connect to the opposite body side.

Thalamus

• Location: Sits atop the brainstem.

• Functions: Sensory control center. Receives sensory info (except smell) and routes it to appropriate brain regions.

Reticular Formation

• Location: Within the brainstem.

• Functions: Filters incoming stimuli and controls arousal. Damage can lead to coma.

Cerebellum

• Location: At the rear of the brainstem.

• Functions: Coordinates movement, balance, nonverbal learning, and memory. Alcohol impairs its function.

The Limbic System

• Components: Includes the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus.

• Functions: Links to emotions (e.g., fear, aggression) and basic drives like hunger and sex.

Amygdala

• Functions: Linked to aggression and fear. Electrical stimulation can provoke anger or fear.

Hypothalamus

• Functions: Regulates body maintenance (e.g., hunger, thirst, temperature). Controls the endocrine system through the pituitary gland. Plays a role in reward and pleasure systems (e.g., food, sex).

Reward Centers

• Discovery: Found in the hypothalamus, triggering pleasurable responses (e.g., stimulating animals for behavior control).

• Human Application: Also affects dopamine-driven pleasure responses, linked to addiction and disorders.

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CH3 MOD 12

Older vs. Newer Brain Networks

• Older Brain Networks: Sustain basic life functions (e.g., memory, emotions, basic drives).

• Newer Neural Networks: Located in the cerebrum (85% of brain weight); handle perception, thinking, speaking.

Cerebral Cortex

• Thin layer of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres.

• Considered the brain's "thinking crown," responsible for control and information processing.

• More developed in higher animals, allowing greater adaptability and learning capabilities.

Structure of the Cortex

• Appearance: Wrinkled organ, resembling a walnut. If flattened, it would cover an area similar to a large pizza.

• Composition: Contains about 20-23 billion nerve cells and 300 trillion synapses.

• Support: Glial cells (9x more than neurons) nourish, protect, and help in learning by supporting neurons.

Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex

• Divided into four lobes:

  1. Frontal Lobes: Behind the forehead; involved in speaking, movement, planning, and judgment.

  2. Parietal Lobes: Top/rear of head; processes touch and body position.

  3. Occipital Lobes: Back of head; processes visual information.

  4. Temporal Lobes: Above the ears; processes auditory information, primarily from the opposite ear.

Functions of the Cortex

• Motor Cortex: Located at the back of the frontal lobes; controls voluntary movements.

  • Discovered by Fritsch and Hitzig: stimulation of specific regions triggers movements on the opposite side of the body.

  • More cortical space is devoted to parts needing precise control (e.g., fingers, mouth).

• Brain-Computer Interfaces: Research allows paralyzed patients to control devices through brain signals.

Sensory Functions

• Somatosensory Cortex: Front of the parietal lobes; processes touch and body movement sensations.

  • More sensitive body parts have larger representation areas (e.g., lips).

• Visual Cortex: Located in the occipital lobes; receives and processes visual information.

• Auditory Cortex: Located in the temporal lobes; processes sound information from the opposite ear.

Association Areas

• Role: Handle higher mental functions (e.g., learning, remembering, thinking, speaking).

• Location: Found throughout all four lobes.

• Prefrontal Cortex (Frontal Lobes): Manages judgment, planning, and processing new memories.

  • Damage can lead to difficulties in planning and executing tasks, despite retained intelligence and skills.

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CH3 MOD 13

Corpus Callosum:

• The bridge of nerve fibers connecting the brain’s two halves.

• Cutting it (split-brain surgery) helps stop severe seizures.

Split Brain:

• A condition from surgery that stops the two brain sides from communicating.

• Patients can do tasks with each hemisphere separately, showing their unique roles.

Hemispheric Specialization:

• Left Hemisphere:

  • Handles speech, language, and math.

  • Good at literal meanings and explaining actions.

• Right Hemisphere:

  • Manages spatial skills, patterns, and emotions.

  • Good at understanding context and recognizing the "big picture."

Visual Wiring:

• The left visual field is processed by the right brain, and the right visual field by the left brain.

Key Experiments:

• "HE·ART" Test:

  • Split-brain patients could say "ART" (left brain) but point to "HE" (right brain).

• Object Test:

  • Patients could touch and identify objects with the right brain but couldn’t name them.

Language and Speech (Left Hemisphere):

• Controls both spoken and sign language.

• Damage affects speech and communication, even for those using sign language.

Right Hemisphere Functions:

• Understands context, controls speech tone, and helps with self-awareness.

• Damage can lead to denial of physical issues.

Consciousness

• Consciousness: Being aware of yourself and your surroundings.

• Helps us plan, think ahead, and understand how others feel.

Cognitive Neuroscience

• Cognitive Neuroscience: Studies how brain activity is linked to thinking and memory.

• Scientists can sometimes see which brain areas are active when we think or imagine things.

Dual Processing

• Dual Processing: The brain works on two levels:

  • High Road: Conscious, focused thinking.

  • Low Road: Automatic, quick thinking.

• Example: People with "blindsight" can react to things they don't see.

Handedness

• 90% of people are right-handed; most process speech in the left brain.

• Left-handers' brains work in different ways, sometimes using the right or both sides for speech.

• Handedness is partly influenced by genes, but it’s seen across many species.

Brain and Decisions

• The brain often starts actions before we’re aware of deciding them.

• Consciousness might be like a "manager," checking what’s happening while the brain handles tasks automatically.

Natural Selection and Adaptation

• Natural Selection: Traits that help survival and reproduction get passed down.

• Example: A scientist tamed wild foxes over time by only breeding the friendliest ones. Eventually, they acted like pets.

Evolutionary Psychology

• Definition: Study of how evolution affects the way we act and think.

• Human Similarities: All humans share common traits (like smiling when happy). These traits helped early humans survive.

Genetic Similarities

• Most human genetic differences are within groups, not between them. People are genetically very similar overall.

Survival Traits

• Our ancestors developed behaviors to help them survive. For example, pregnant women avoiding harmful foods protected babies.

Mating Preferences

• Men: Often attracted to younger women (more years to have children).

• Women: Often attracted to men who are stable and can provide.

Evolution Today

• Old Instincts, New World: Traits like craving sweets helped ancestors survive but now can cause issues like obesity.

• Psychology: Evolutionary psychology studies why we have certain fears, likes, and behaviors, which go back to survival needs.

Biopsychosocial Approach: Examines how biological, psychological, and social factors shape development.

Genes: Inherited traits that influence both shared and individual human characteristics.

Environment: External influences like family and culture that work alongside genes to shape individuals.

Nature vs. Nurture: The combined impact of genetics (nature) and experiences (nurture).

Gender Roles: Social expectations for behaviors based on gender, evolving with time.

Evolution: Adaptation over time; explains shared human traits.

Open System: Humans can shape their lives beyond genetic and environmental influences.

Scientific Naturalism: The view that natural processes like evolution explain human origins.

Occam’s Razor: The simplest explanation is preferred in scientific theory.

Awe: Wonder at the complexity and mystery of life and the universe.