APUSH U6 Study

John D. Rockefeller

John D. Rockefeller was the founder of the Standard Oil Company and a dominant figure in the oil industry during the Gilded Age. He utilized horizontal integration to create a near-monopoly, controlling over 90% of the oil industry at its peak. He employed aggressive pricing strategies and secret deals with railroads to eliminate competition. Though often labeled a "Robber Baron" for his ruthless business tactics, he later became a philanthropist, funding education and medical research. His influence in big business led to the passage of antitrust laws, most notably the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, which sought to regulate monopolies and curb corporate power.

Andrew Carnegie

Andrew Carnegie was a steel magnate who revolutionized the industry through vertical integration, controlling every aspect of steel production from raw materials to distribution. His company, Carnegie Steel, became the largest in the world before he sold it to J.P. Morgan, who then formed U.S. Steel. Carnegie believed in the "Gospel of Wealth," arguing that the rich had a moral obligation to give back to society. He funded libraries, universities, and cultural institutions, donating over $350 million. Despite his philanthropy, he faced criticism for the harsh working conditions in his steel plants, particularly during the violent Homestead Steel Strike of 1892.

Robber Barons

Robber Barons were powerful industrialists and financiers of the late 19th century who amassed vast wealth through monopolistic and often exploitative business practices. Figures like Rockefeller, Carnegie, and J.P. Morgan were accused of manipulating markets, crushing competition, and exploiting workers. While their business tactics were controversial, they also played a crucial role in America’s industrial growth. Critics argued that they widened the gap between the rich and poor, while supporters claimed they modernized industries and contributed to economic expansion. Their dominance led to calls for government regulation, resulting in antitrust legislation such as the Sherman Antitrust Act.

Standard Oil Company

Founded by John D. Rockefeller in 1870, Standard Oil became the largest oil refinery business in the world, using horizontal integration to consolidate smaller oil companies into one vast monopoly. The company secured secret rebates with railroads and used predatory pricing to undercut competitors. It was one of the first major corporations to face government action for monopolistic practices, and in 1911, the Supreme Court ordered its breakup under the Sherman Antitrust Act. The dissolution of Standard Oil set a precedent for future trust-busting and government regulation of big business.

Knights of Labor

The Knights of Labor was a labor organization founded in 1869 by Uriah Stephens and later led by Terence Powderly. It sought to unite all workers, regardless of skill level, race, or gender, in a broad movement to secure better wages, an eight-hour workday, and safer conditions. The organization grew rapidly in the 1880s but declined after the Haymarket Riot of 1886, when a bombing at a labor protest in Chicago led to public backlash against unions. The failure of the Knights to coordinate large-scale strikes and their openness to radical elements ultimately weakened the movement, paving the way for more specialized labor organizations like the American Federation of Labor.

American Federation of Labor

The American Federation of Labor (AFL), founded in 1886 by Samuel Gompers, was a labor union that focused on organizing skilled workers into craft unions. Unlike the Knights of Labor, the AFL pursued practical economic goals such as higher wages, shorter workdays, and better working conditions rather than broad social reforms. It used strikes and collective bargaining as its primary tools to negotiate with employers. The AFL became one of the most powerful labor organizations in the country and laid the foundation for future labor movements. Its emphasis on skilled labor limited its membership but ensured longevity and effectiveness in achieving workers' rights.

Homestead Steel Strike

The Homestead Steel Strike of 1892 was a violent labor dispute between the Carnegie Steel Company and its workers at the Homestead, Pennsylvania, plant. When workers protested wage cuts, company manager Henry Clay Frick hired Pinkerton detectives to break the strike, leading to a bloody battle that left several dead. The Pennsylvania militia was called in to restore order, and the strike ultimately failed, crushing union efforts in the steel industry for decades. The event highlighted the growing tensions between labor and management in the Gilded Age and reinforced the government's tendency to side with business over workers.

Pullman Strike

The Pullman Strike of 1894 was a nationwide railroad strike that began when the Pullman Company cut wages but refused to lower rents in company-owned housing. Led by the American Railway Union (ARU) and its leader Eugene V. Debs, the strike escalated, disrupting rail traffic across the country. The federal government, under President Grover Cleveland, intervened by sending troops, resulting in violent clashes and dozens of deaths. The strike ended in defeat for workers, and Debs was jailed, marking a significant moment in labor history. The event demonstrated the federal government's willingness to suppress labor unrest in favor of corporate interests.

Eugene V. Debs

Eugene V. Debs was a labor leader and socialist who played a key role in the Pullman Strike of 1894 and later founded the American Socialist Party. He became one of the most prominent advocates for workers’ rights and ran for president five times as a socialist candidate. Debs was imprisoned multiple times for his activism, including for opposing U.S. involvement in World War I. His ideas about wealth redistribution and labor rights influenced progressive and New Deal-era policies. Though never successful in winning office, he helped popularize socialism in the U.S. labor movement.

Industrial Workers of the World

The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), founded in 1905, was a radical labor union that sought to unite all workers, including unskilled laborers, in one big union to overthrow capitalism. Unlike the AFL, which focused on skilled workers, the IWW welcomed immigrants, minorities, and women. Nicknamed the “Wobblies,” they used direct action tactics, including strikes and sabotage, to fight for workers' rights. Their radical nature made them targets of government crackdowns, particularly during World War I. Although the IWW never achieved mainstream success, it left a lasting impact on labor organizing and workers' solidarity movements.

The New South

The term "New South" referred to the post-Reconstruction vision of a more industrialized and diversified Southern economy, moving away from its reliance on agriculture and slavery. Promoted by figures like Henry Grady, the New South emphasized industrialization, textile manufacturing, and railroads. However, the economic changes were limited, as sharecropping and tenant farming continued to dominate, and racial segregation was solidified through Jim Crow laws. The concept reflected an effort to modernize the South, but economic disparities and racial discrimination persisted.

Sharecroppers

Sharecroppers were tenant farmers, mostly African Americans and poor whites, who worked land owned by someone else in exchange for a share of the harvest. This system emerged in the South after the Civil War as a replacement for slavery but often kept workers in cycles of debt due to exploitative contracts. Landowners manipulated credit and pricing, ensuring that sharecroppers remained economically dependent. This form of labor exploitation reinforced racial and class divisions in the South, prolonging economic struggles for freedmen well into the 20th century.

Redeemers

Redeemers were Southern Democrats who sought to regain political power after Reconstruction and restore white supremacy in the South. They implemented policies that rolled back Reconstruction-era gains, such as restricting Black voting rights through poll taxes and literacy tests. They also supported economic modernization but primarily prioritized maintaining social and racial hierarchies. Their influence led to the establishment of Jim Crow laws, which legalized racial segregation for decades. The Redeemers played a crucial role in shaping the post-Reconstruction South and undermining African American political and economic progress.

Sand Creek Massacre

The Sand Creek Massacre occurred in 1864 when Colorado militia, led by Colonel John Chivington, attacked a peaceful Cheyenne and Arapaho village in southeastern Colorado, killing over 150 Native Americans, many of whom were women and children. The massacre was part of the broader Indian Wars, as tensions escalated between settlers and Native Americans over land and resources. The event sparked outrage and led to congressional investigations, but no one was held accountable. It demonstrated the brutal treatment of Native Americans by the U.S. government and fueled further conflicts, including the Great Sioux War.

Chief Joseph

Chief Joseph was the leader of the Nez Perce tribe and is best known for his resistance to U.S. government efforts to forcibly relocate his people to a reservation. In 1877, after tensions over land disputes, he led his followers on a 1,400-mile retreat toward Canada to escape U.S. forces. Despite his strategic brilliance, he was eventually forced to surrender near the border, famously stating, “I will fight no more forever.” His surrender marked the end of large-scale Native American resistance in the Northwest. He became a symbol of the Native American struggle for justice and dignity.

Nez Perce

The Nez Perce were a Native American tribe from the Pacific Northwest, known for their skilled horsemanship and resistance against U.S. expansion. After the U.S. government violated a previous treaty, attempting to force them onto a reservation, the Nez Perce, led by Chief Joseph, attempted to flee to Canada in 1877. They were pursued by the U.S. Army and, after several battles, were captured just short of the border. Their defeat marked the near-total subjugation of Native American tribes in the West, as the reservation system became the dominant form of control over indigenous people.

Dawes Severalty Act of 1887

The Dawes Severalty Act aimed to assimilate Native Americans into American society by breaking up tribal land and redistributing it to individual Native families. Each family was allotted 160 acres, while the remaining land was sold to white settlers. The act was intended to encourage Native Americans to adopt farming and abandon communal living. However, it resulted in the loss of millions of acres of tribal land, further eroding Native American culture and independence. The law significantly weakened tribal sovereignty and was later replaced by the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934.

Great Sioux War

The Great Sioux War (1876–1877) was a series of conflicts between the U.S. Army and the Lakota Sioux, along with their allies, the Cheyenne. The war was sparked by the U.S. government's attempts to seize the Black Hills, sacred land to the Sioux, after gold was discovered there. The most famous battle of the war was the Battle of Little Bighorn, where Sioux and Cheyenne warriors, led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, defeated General George Custer’s forces. However, the U.S. eventually overwhelmed the Sioux, forcing them onto reservations. The war marked the decline of Native American military resistance.

Range Wars

Range Wars were violent conflicts in the late 19th century between ranchers, farmers, and sheep herders over land use, grazing rights, and water access in the West. As barbed wire became widely used, open-range cattle ranching declined, leading to disputes between large cattle barons and small homesteaders. The Johnson County War in Wyoming was one of the most infamous examples. These conflicts reflected the broader struggle over land ownership in the West and signaled the transition from open grazing to enclosed farming, reinforcing the government’s push for agricultural development.

Ghost Dance Movement

The Ghost Dance was a spiritual revival movement among Native American tribes in the late 19th century. It was founded by the Paiute prophet Wovoka, who claimed that performing the dance would bring back ancestors, restore lost lands, and make white settlers disappear. The U.S. government viewed the movement as a threat, leading to the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890, where U.S. troops killed over 200 Lakota Sioux. The massacre marked the end of Native American armed resistance against U.S. expansion and symbolized the final suppression of indigenous culture and autonomy.

Frederick Jackson Turner

Frederick Jackson Turner was a historian who presented the "Frontier Thesis" in 1893, arguing that the American frontier played a fundamental role in shaping the nation's character, fostering democracy, individualism, and innovation. He warned that with the 1890 Census declaring the frontier "closed," Americans might lose their unique spirit of expansion. His thesis influenced U.S. policies, encouraging overseas expansion and imperialism as a new form of frontier, particularly in places like the Philippines and Latin America. His ideas shaped historical interpretations of American identity and westward expansion.

Ellis Island

Ellis Island was the primary immigration processing center in the U.S. from 1892 to 1954, located in New York Harbor. Millions of European immigrants arrived through Ellis Island, undergoing health inspections and legal screenings before entering the country. It symbolized hope and opportunity for many seeking a better life but also reflected the challenges immigrants faced. The influx of immigrants fueled nativist sentiment and restrictive policies, such as literacy tests and quotas, which sought to limit immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe.

Nativist

Nativists were individuals who opposed immigration, believing that newcomers threatened American jobs, culture, and democracy. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, nativists targeted Catholic, Jewish, and Asian immigrants, arguing that they were unassimilable. Organizations like the American Protective Association lobbied for immigration restrictions, leading to policies such as the Chinese Exclusion Act and later the Immigration Act of 1924. Nativist sentiments influenced American politics and shaped restrictive immigration laws that remained in place for decades.

Chinese Exclusion Act

The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was the first major federal law restricting immigration, banning Chinese laborers from entering the U.S. The act was passed in response to economic fears and racial prejudices, as many Americans blamed Chinese workers for job competition and depressed wages. The law was extended multiple times and was not repealed until 1943. It set a precedent for future immigration restrictions and demonstrated the deep racial discrimination present in U.S. immigration policy.

Social Darwinism

Social Darwinism applied Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection to human society, arguing that wealth and success were signs of superiority, while poverty indicated inferiority. This ideology was used to justify laissez-faire capitalism, minimal government intervention, and opposition to labor unions and social welfare programs. Prominent figures like Herbert Spencer and William Graham Sumner promoted these ideas, reinforcing the belief that economic inequality was natural. Social Darwinism contributed to policies that favored big business and delayed government action on workers' rights.

Reform Darwinism

Reform Darwinism, developed by Lester Frank Ward, challenged Social Darwinism by arguing that human intelligence and cooperation could shape society for the better. It advocated for government intervention to address social and economic problems, including public education, labor laws, and social welfare programs. This philosophy influenced Progressive Era reforms, pushing for policies that promoted economic fairness and social justice. Reform Darwinism laid the groundwork for later government efforts to regulate industry and protect workers.

Political Machine

Political machines were powerful urban organizations that controlled city governments through patronage and corruption. The most infamous was Tammany Hall in New York, led by Boss Tweed. These organizations provided jobs and services to immigrants in exchange for votes, ensuring their political dominance. While they helped integrate immigrants into society, they were also notorious for bribery, election fraud, and misuse of public funds. The exposure of corruption in political machines led to civil service reforms, such as the Pendleton Act, which sought to reduce patronage and implement merit-based hiring.

Granger Movement

The Granger Movement emerged in the 1860s and 1870s as an organized effort by farmers to fight against unfair railroad practices and monopolistic grain storage fees. Led by the National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry, the movement sought to regulate railroads through state laws, known as Granger Laws, which aimed to prevent price discrimination. Although many of these laws were overturned by the Supreme Court in cases like Wabash v. Illinois (1886), the movement helped pave the way for federal regulation of big business, leading to the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887.

Farmers’ Alliances

The Farmers’ Alliances were regional organizations formed in the 1880s that sought to improve economic conditions for farmers by advocating for cooperative buying and selling, railroad regulation, and monetary reform. They gained significant political influence, particularly in the South and West, and laid the foundation for the Populist Party. Their push for inflationary policies like the free coinage of silver aimed to relieve debt-stricken farmers but was met with opposition from industrial and banking interests. Their activism contributed to the rise of agrarian political movements and progressive economic reforms.

Populists

The Populist Party, or People’s Party, was founded in 1892 by farmers, laborers, and reformers frustrated with economic inequality and political corruption. They called for government ownership of railroads, a graduated income tax, direct election of senators, and the free coinage of silver to inflate the currency and ease farmer debt. Their 1892 presidential candidate, James B. Weaver, gained national attention, but the party peaked with William Jennings Bryan’s "Cross of Gold" speech in 1896. Though the Populists eventually declined, many of their ideas were later adopted during the Progressive Era and New Deal.

Jim Crow Laws

Jim Crow laws were a series of state and local laws enforcing racial segregation in the South following Reconstruction. These laws mandated separate public facilities for Black and white citizens, covering everything from schools to transportation. They were upheld by the Supreme Court in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), which established the "separate but equal" doctrine. Jim Crow laws disenfranchised Black voters through poll taxes, literacy tests, and grandfather clauses, institutionalizing racial discrimination until the Civil Rights Movement overturned them with the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

Plessy v. Ferguson

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) was a landmark Supreme Court case that upheld racial segregation under the "separate but equal" doctrine. The case arose when Homer Plessy, a mixed-race man, challenged Louisiana’s segregation laws by refusing to leave a whites-only railcar. The Court ruled that segregation did not violate the 14th Amendment as long as facilities were "equal," legitimizing decades of racial discrimination. This decision reinforced Jim Crow laws and remained in effect until it was overturned by Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which ruled that segregation was inherently unequal.

Sherman Antitrust Act

The Sherman Antitrust Act, passed in 1890, was the first federal law aimed at curbing monopolies and corporate power. It declared illegal any business activity that restrained trade or created monopolies, but it was initially weak and often used against labor unions instead of big corporations. The act was later strengthened by the Clayton Antitrust Act (1914) and was used by Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft to break up trusts like Standard Oil. It marked the beginning of federal efforts to regulate big business and promote economic competition.

Booker T. Washington

Booker T. Washington was a Black educator and leader who promoted racial uplift through economic self-sufficiency and vocational training. In his famous "Atlanta Compromise" speech (1895), he encouraged African Americans to focus on economic progress rather than immediate civil rights, arguing that hard work and education would eventually lead to equality. He founded the Tuskegee Institute to provide vocational training for Black Americans. While some praised his practical approach, critics like W.E.B. Du Bois accused him of being too accommodating to segregation and white supremacy. His influence shaped early 20th-century Black leadership and education.

W.E.B. Du Bois

W.E.B. Du Bois was a prominent Black intellectual, sociologist, and activist who co-founded the NAACP in 1909. He rejected Booker T. Washington’s gradualist approach and instead called for immediate civil rights and higher education for the "Talented Tenth" of Black Americans who could lead the fight for equality. In The Souls of Black Folk (1903), he criticized racial segregation and argued for direct political activism. His ideas heavily influenced the Civil Rights Movement and laid the groundwork for later activism by figures like Martin Luther King Jr.

Theodore Roosevelt

Theodore Roosevelt, the 26th president of the United States (1901–1909), was known for his progressive policies, trust-busting efforts, and conservation initiatives. He used the Sherman Antitrust Act to break up monopolies like Standard Oil and pushed for government regulation of industry with laws like the Pure Food and Drug Act. His "Square Deal" sought to balance the interests of business, labor, and consumers. Roosevelt also expanded U.S. influence abroad, advocating for the construction of the Panama Canal and asserting the U.S.’s right to intervene in Latin America through the Roosevelt Corollary.

Spanish-American War

The Spanish-American War (1898) was a conflict between the U.S. and Spain, sparked by Cuban resistance to Spanish rule and the explosion of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor. Fueled by yellow journalism, public outcry pushed the U.S. into war. The U.S. quickly defeated Spain, acquiring territories such as Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines under the Treaty of Paris. The war marked the emergence of the U.S. as a global imperial power and led to debates over American expansionism, particularly in the Philippines, where an anti-imperialist movement opposed colonization.

Annexation of Hawaii

The U.S. annexed Hawaii in 1898 after American business interests and settlers, led by Sanford Dole, overthrew Queen Liliʻuokalani in 1893. The islands' strategic location in the Pacific made them valuable for military and economic purposes, particularly for sugar plantations and as a naval base at Pearl Harbor. Although President Grover Cleveland initially opposed annexation, the Spanish-American War heightened Hawaii’s importance, leading President William McKinley to support it. The annexation of Hawaii exemplified U.S. imperialism and set a precedent for further expansion in the Pacific.

The Maine

The USS Maine was a U.S. battleship that exploded in Havana Harbor in 1898, killing over 250 sailors. Although the exact cause remains debated, American newspapers, led by yellow journalists like William Randolph Hearst, blamed Spain, fueling public support for war. The phrase "Remember the Maine, to Hell with Spain!" became a rallying cry, pressuring the U.S. government to intervene in Cuba. The event was a major catalyst for the Spanish-American War and illustrated the power of the press in shaping public opinion.

Yellow Journalism

Yellow Journalism was a sensationalized and exaggerated style of reporting used by newspapers like The New York Journal (Hearst) and The New York World (Pulitzer) to attract readers and influence public opinion. It played a significant role in drumming up support for the Spanish-American War by publishing misleading stories about Spanish atrocities in Cuba. While it increased newspaper sales, it also contributed to misinformation and media-driven war hysteria. The era of yellow journalism highlighted the growing influence of the press in politics and foreign policy.

Roosevelt Corollary

The Roosevelt Corollary, issued in 1904, was an extension of the Monroe Doctrine, asserting that the U.S. had the right to intervene in Latin American countries to maintain stability and prevent European interference. It was used to justify American involvement in the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and other nations, often to protect U.S. business interests. The policy established the U.S. as a regional "policeman" and marked a shift toward more aggressive foreign intervention, laying the foundation for future American actions in Latin America.