HISTORY OF MEDICINE

Primitive humans called upon supernatural spirits for healing, while modern medicine relies on scientific understanding and evidence.
Historical development shows progression of medical ideas through various cultures and epochs.
Key figures include:
- Leonardo da Vinci: Early dissector of human anatomy.
- Ancient Greeks: Advocated for systematic approaches to medicine.
Evolution continues with advances in our understanding of the human genome leading to new treatments.

The human genome consists of approximately 20,000-25,000 genes, detailing their locations on chromosomes.

Early medicine relied on spiritual beliefs and supernatural entities.
Archaeological findings suggest:
- Cave paintings and artifacts indicate early humans connected illness with spirits.
- Special individuals known as Shamen acted as healers, performing rituals and administering early forms of medicines.

Practices included ceremonies, spells, and various primitive medicines:
- Consumption of animal blood believed to confer strength.
- Use of specific plants for healing, possibly leading to early drugs like digitalis and morphine.
Trepanning: An ancient surgical practice involving drilling holes in the skull, possibly to release evil spirits. Evidence shows patients survived.

Although rooted in superstition, some treatments had beneficial outcomes.
Western medicine is now grounded in observation and rigorous methodology, although alternative and faith healing practices still exist in certain cultures.

Ancient Egyptians integrated religion and healing:
- Goddess Sekhmet was associated with health, and priests acted as doctors.
- They developed specialized medical practitioners and documented symptoms and remedies on papyrus, forming some of the earliest medical texts.

Innovations included:
- Specific treatments for parts of the body (obstetrics, surgery).
- Early forms of medication: ointments and potions prepared from plants.
Medical practices intertwined with religious beliefs—disease viewed as spiritual punishment.

Illness was connected with the existence of evil spirits; cures often involved prayers and charms.
First Pharmacists: Developed medications, like opium, demonstrating the roots of modern pharmacology.

The Greeks moved towards a rational understanding of health.
Hippocrates: The "father of medicine"; rejected the idea that diseases were divine punishments. Advocated for the balance of four humours:
- Blood: Liveliness.
- Phlegm: Torpidity.
- Black Bile: Melancholy.
- Yellow Bile: Irritability.
Galen: Built on Hippocratic ideas, studied anatomy through animal dissections due to restrictions on human dissection.

Romans recognized the connection between hygiene and health, leading to public health improvements:
- Construction of aqueducts and sanitation systems.
- Development of military hospitals.

Medical knowledge regressed with the fall of the Roman Empire; access to hygiene and medicinal care diminished.
Healing dominated by religion, with sickness seen as divine punishment.
Hospitals mostly affiliated with religious orders; care was minimal and primarily spiritual.
The Plague (Black Death) devastated populations; ineffective treatments exacerbated suffering.

Post-Roman Empire, Arabic world became the primary center for medical knowledge.
Scholars translated Greek texts, enhancing medical understanding.
Hospitals offered universal healthcare and training.
Avicenna: Authored influential medical texts that guided later European medicine.

Renewed interest in scientific inquiry and observation.
Andreas Vesalius: Pioneered human dissection, enhancing anatomical understanding.
William Harvey: Discovered blood circulation, debunking earlier theories.

Industrial revolution caused public health crises; overcrowding and disease spread.
Development of microscopy opened new avenues in anatomy, leading to germ theory:
- Edward Jenner: Introduced vaccination techniques.
- Louis Pasteur: Advanced study of microbes and their role in diseases.

Surgical practices improved with instruments and antiseptic procedures, introduced by Joseph Lister.

Breakthroughs in pharmacology begin with insulin and penicillin, influencing the treatment of chronic and infectious diseases respectively.
Human Genome Project: Enhanced understanding of genetics for treating diseases.

Continuous advancements focus on genetics, ethical considerations, and rising life expectancies.
The role of vast R&D investments and ongoing clinical trials shape new therapeutic landscapes.