States of Consciousness

States of Consciousness

• States of Consciousness involve a range of experiences, from complete awareness to a total lack of awareness.

AP Exam: Unit 2: Biological Bases of Behavior (Sleep, Dreams, Drugs)

• 8-10% of AP psychology students should be able to:

  • Describe various states of consciousness and their impact on behavior. This encompasses understanding how different states, like sleep or alertness, influence actions and reactions.

  • Discuss aspects of sleep and dreaming:

  • Stages and characteristics of the sleep cycle, detailing the physiological changes at each stage.

  • Theories of sleep and dreaming, exploring different perspectives on why we sleep and dream.

  • Symptoms and treatments of sleep disorders, covering common disorders like insomnia and sleep apnea.

  • Identify the major psychoactive drug categories (e.g., depressants, stimulants, hallucinogens) and classify specific drugs, including their psychological and physiological effects. Explore how these drugs alter consciousness and bodily functions.

  • Discuss drug dependence, addiction, tolerance, and withdrawal. Understand the processes and impacts of substance dependence.

  • Identify the major figures in consciousness research (e.g., William James, Sigmund Freud). Learn about the key contributors to the field.

Consciousness

• Underlying the mental model we create of the world of which we are aware. It's the subjective experience of the world and our internal thoughts.

• Part of the mind from which we can potentially retrieve:

  • A fact

  • An idea

  • An emotion

  • A memory

  • And combine it with critical thinking. This retrieval and combination enable complex thought and decision-making.

Waking Consciousness

• State in which thoughts, feelings, and sensations are clear and organized, and the person feels alert. It’s characterized by a high level of awareness and cognitive function.

Altered State of Consciousness

• State in which there is a shift in the quality or pattern of mental activity as compared to waking consciousness. This can be induced by factors such as drugs, meditation, or sleep.

Competing Views (Review of CH 1)

• Structuralists used introspection (self-reporting) to find the boundaries of conscious thought. They sought to understand the basic elements of consciousness through detailed self-examination.

• Behaviorists, like John Watson, sought to take the mind out of psychology. He argued there is no real way to see inside of it. Behaviorism focused solely on observable behaviors, rejecting the study of inner mental processes.

• As a result, psychology became a science of behavior without a consciousness or a mind, emphasizing observable actions over internal thoughts.

The Mind Returns

• In the 1960s, psychologists began to question the behaviorist model for two reasons:

  • First, there were psychological issues which needed better explanations than behaviorism could offer. Quirks of memory, perceptual illusions, drug-induced states (very popular in the 1960s) prompted a reevaluation of cognitive processes.

  • Second, technological innovations let psychologists look at the brain in ways that Watson had never dreamed about. Advances in neuroscience provided tools to study brain activity and its relation to mental states.

• Cognitive neuroscience involves cognitive psychology, neurology, biology, computer science, and linguistics. It’s an interdisciplinary field studying the neural mechanisms underlying cognition.

The Conscious Mind

• Takes on a variety of roles but MUST focus sequentially on one thing and then another. It's limited to processing one stream of information at a time.

• Multitasking is not all it is cracked up to be. Dividing attention reduces efficiency and accuracy.

• Explicit Processing (aware) - processing conscious thought and focusing your full attention at the task at hand (effortful processing). It requires sustained attention and cognitive effort.

The Nonconscious Process

• Implicit Processing – processing that happens without conscious awareness, in which you can perform an action before you even become aware of it (automatic processing). It occurs without intention and consumes minimal cognitive resources.

• Great at multitasking because it can handle many streams of information at the same time, called parallel processing. This allows multiple tasks to be performed simultaneously.

• Examples: Walking, chewing gum, and breathing

• Where the conscious mind has the ability to focus on just one task, the nonconscious mind has no such restrictions. It can handle multiple inputs and processes simultaneously.

What Consciousness Does

Our consciousness has 3 main functions:

1. Consciousness restricts our attention. It keeps our brain from being overwhelmed by stimulation by processing things serially and limiting what we notice and think about - this is called selective attention. This function helps filter out irrelevant sensory information.

2. Consciousness provides us with a mental “meeting place.” Where sensation combines with memory, emotions, and motives - this is the binding problem. E.g. We know we see an Italian restaurant, taste pizza, and smell pasta. However, we do not know how all of these senses come together to create the one perception of "our" reality. It integrates diverse sensory and cognitive information into a unified experience.

3. Consciousness allows us to create a mental model of the world that we can manipulate. Unlike other, simpler organisms, we are not prisoners of the moment: We don’t just act reflexively to stimulation.

   • Humans are the only animal with the ability to set goals. This capacity enables planning and future-oriented behavior.

Mental Imaging

• We can use our conscious mind to “zoom in” on an image, or to manipulate it. For instance, picturing a cat. This ability enhances problem-solving and creative thinking.

The Results (of Mental Imaging)

• Questions about the cat: Is the cat black? Does it have a long tail? Does it have a collar on? Does it have short hair? Does it have white paws?

• Psychologists have found that the smaller the detail, the longer people take to respond. Reaction time increases with the level of detail required.

Levels of Consciousness

• Various levels exist beyond the conscious level.

  • Mere-exposure effect – tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them. In social psychology, this effect is sometimes called the familiarity principle. Repeated exposure increases liking.

  • Blind sight – the ability to respond to visual stimuli without having any conscious visual experience; it can occur after some forms of brain damage. This phenomenon demonstrates implicit processing in visual perception.

Levels of the Nonconscious Mind

• There are two levels of the nonconscious (subconscious) mind: preconscious and unconscious.

  • Preconscious memories: Information that is not currently in consciousness, but can be recalled voluntarily. These memories are readily accessible when needed.

  • Unconscious: Cognition (thought) without awareness. It includes processes that operate outside of conscious awareness but still influence behavior.

  • Involves levels of brain systems that range from autopilot to those which can have subtle influences on consciousness and behavior. These systems handle automatic tasks and can affect decision-making.

What is Unconsciousness

• A dictionary might define the term as being a loss of all consciousness, like when a person faints. In this state, there is no awareness or responsiveness.

• But in psychology, we define it a little differently. To show this, let's look at an example: Fill in the blanks to complete the word: D E F _ _ _

Answer (to Unconsciousness Example)

• Using a technique called priming, psychologists can have some influence on the answer people give. Priming activates associated concepts in memory.

• This idea of priming is similar to asking “leading questions” in court, or framing questions by asking them in a way which increases the likelihood of certain answers. It influences responses through suggestion or association.

• There were a number of possible answers to the example: defend, defeat, defect, defile, deform, defray, defuse, and define.

• There is an increased likelihood you chose define. Why? Because that it’s a common and readily accessible word, showing how priming affects word retrieval.

Freud’s View of Consciousness

• According to Freud, there are three levels of consciousness:

  • Conscious: this is the part of the mind that holds what you’re aware of. You can verbalize about your conscious experience and you can think about it in a logical fashion. It’s the current focus of attention.

  • Preconscious: ordinary memory. Although things stored here aren’t in the conscious, they can be readily brought into conscious. Contains easily retrievable information.

  • Unconscious: Freud felt that this part of the mind was not directly accessible to awareness. It’s a reservoir of hidden thoughts and desires.

  • A dump box for urges, feelings, and ideas that are tied to anxiety, conflict, and pain. This area contains repressed emotions and trauma.

  • These feelings and thoughts have not disappeared and are exerting influence on our actions and our conscious awareness. They can manifest in behaviors and emotions.

Freud's View of The Human Mind: Mental Iceberg

• Conscious Level

  • Thoughts

  • Perceptions

  • Memories

• Preconscious Level

  • Stored Knowledge

• Unconscious Level

  • Fears

  • Unacceptable Sexual Desires

  • Violent Motives

  • Irrational Wishes

  • Immoral Urges

  • Selfish Needs

  • Shameful Experiences

Freud's View of Consciousness

• SUPEREGO

  • Moral imperatives. Represents internalized societal norms and values.

• EGO

  • Reality principle. Operates on a rational understanding of the world.

  • Secondary process thinking. Involves logical and realistic planning.

  • Conscious = Preconscious

• ID

  • Pleasure principle. Seeks immediate gratification of desires.

  • Primary process thinking. Is irrational and impulsive.

  • Unconscious

More Freud…

• The ego is based on the reality principle – Understands that other people have needs and desires and that sometimes being impulsive or selfish is bad - meet the needs of the id, within reason. It mediates between the id and superego, balancing desires with reality.

• The id is based on our pleasure principle. – The id wants whatever feels good at the time, with no consideration for the reality of the situation. It is driven by immediate gratification and disregards consequences.

• The superego is the moral part of us and develops due to the morals and ethics of our parents. – Many equate the superego with the conscience as it dictates our belief of right and wrong. It internalizes societal standards and enforces moral restrictions.

• NOTE: The ego is the strongest so that it can satisfy the needs of the id, not upset the superego, and still take into consideration the reality of every situation. It must balance conflicting demands to maintain psychological equilibrium.

Freud’s View of the Unconscious

• The unconscious mind served as a mental dungeon where terrible urges and threatening memories were kept “locked up” and outside of awareness. It functions as a repository for repressed and inaccessible material.

• The unconscious mind had an especially important role in our relationships.

  • He said we chose mates who are, on an unconscious level, just substitutes for our fathers and mothers.

  • Oedipus Complex

  • Electra Complex

Nonconscious Mind Reality

• It seems to devote its resources to simple background tasks such as screening the incoming stream of sights, sounds, smells, and textures. It handles routine sensory processing without conscious attention.

• It alerts us to important things, like someone saying our name in a crowded room (cocktail party effect). This demonstrates selective attention at the nonconscious level.

Daydreaming

• A common (and quite normal) variation of consciousness. It involves a shift in cognitive activity away from the external environment.

• Attention shifts to memories, expectations, desires, or fantasies and away from the immediate situation. This can provide mental refreshment or problem-solving opportunities.

• Most people daydream every day, however, it is much more common amongst younger adults. Frequency tends to decrease with age.

• Daydreams serve valuable functions such as planning and problem-solving. They can help in exploring future possibilities or resolving current issues.

Sleep

• Sleep is a state of consciousness characterized by reduced awareness and responsiveness to the environment.

• We are less aware of our surroundings, with decreased sensory and cognitive activity.

Circadian Rhythm

• From Latin words “circa” (about) and “diem” (day)

• Often referred to as the "body clock", circadian rhythm is a 24-hour cycle that rules us all. It regulates various physiological processes including sleep-wake cycles.

Biological System of Sleep

• Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus is the control center for our 24-hour rhythm of sleep. It receives light-dark signals and regulates hormone release and other functions.

• Senses changes in light and dark and sends neurological messages to your brain and body that put you to sleep. This process involves various neurotransmitters and hormones.

• One of these neurological transmitters is melatonin, a hormone connected to the wake-sleep cycles that builds up while we sleep. Melatonin promotes sleepiness and helps regulate sleep timing.

What can disrupt our circadian rhythm?

The normal circadian clock is set by the light-dark cycle over 24 hours.

• Time zone changes (Jet lag) leading to misalignment between internal clock and external environment.

• Light/dark changes such as irregular exposure to light.

• Changes in routine such as staying up late or sleeping in.

• Shift work involving variable work schedules.

• Pregnancy due to hormonal shifts.

• Medications affecting neurotransmitter levels.

• Medical problems including Alzheimer's or Parkinson's disease which can disrupt SCN function.

• Mental health problems such as depression or anxiety.

• Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome (DSPS): This is a disorder of sleep timing. People with DSPS tend to fall asleep very late at night and have difficulty waking up in time for work, school, or social engagements.

Theories of Sleep

• While we do not know for sure why, sleep may have evolved for a few reasons.

  • Sleep protects us (evolutionary/adaptive theory) suggesting that sleep evolved to conserve energy and avoid predators during vulnerable times.

  • Sleep helps us recuperate/replenish chemicals and repair cellular damage, repairs brain tissue (restorative theory) indicating that sleep allows for physical and neural restoration.

  • Sleeping to remember - helps rebuild our fading memories by consolidating and strengthening neural connections.

  • Sleep to grow - during deep sleep, the pituitary gland releases a growth hormone vital for physical development and repair.

Stages of Sleep

• The sleep-wake cycle itself is circadian but we have Ultradian Rhythms (Occur more than once a day) which are the cycles during our night’s sleep. These include sleep stages and cycles.

• As you relax and try to go to sleep, your brain waves cycle more and more slowly. This is a result of decreasing neural activity and increased synchronization.

• Once you fall asleep, you will go through 4 stages of relatively quiet sleep before you go to the more active dreaming stage. Each stage is characterized by distinct brain wave patterns and physiological changes.

Sleep Cycle

• In normal adults, a cycle will last about 1.5 hours.

• Use an EEG machine to measure stages of sleep. This measures brain electrical activity.

• When you are on the onset of sleep you experience alpha waves. These are associated with relaxation and drowsiness.

• A typical night's sleep consists of about 4-5 full sleep cycles. Each cycle progresses through different stages of sleep, including NREM and REM sleep.

• But each of these sleep cycles is different from one another. The duration and characteristics of each stage vary across cycles.

• During the first 2-3 sleep cycles, you spend most of the time in a deep NREM sleep. This is important for physical restoration.

• The final 2-3 sleep cycles, we spend much more time in REM sleep accompanied by lighter NREM. REM becomes more prominent towards the morning, impacting dreaming and cognitive processes.

Brain Waves and Sleep Stages

• AWAKE

  • BETA WAVES: High frequency and irregular patterns.

• DROWSY OR RELAXED

  • ALPHA WAVES: Slower and more rhythmic than beta waves.

• STAGE 1 SLEEP

  • THETA WAVES: Even slower and more irregular waves.

• STAGE 2 SLEEP

  • THETA WAVES

  • SLEEP SPINDLES AND K COMPLEXES: Brief bursts of high-frequency activity and sharp upward deflections in EEG readings.

• STAGES 3/4 SLEEP

  • DELTA WAVES: Very slow, high-amplitude waves.

  • DEEPEST SLEEP. HARDEST TO WAKE FROM. This stage is essential for physical recovery.

• REM SLEEP

  • FAST AND RANDOM. Brain activity resembles wakefulness.

  • DREAMING. Vivid and often bizarre dreams occur.

  • NO SLEEP INERTIA! Minimal grogginess upon waking.

NREM-Stage 1

• Brain produces alpha and your eye movements slow down. Transition from relaxed wakefulness to light sleep.

• Brief, lasting up to 5-10 minutes.

• Light stage sleep, which means that you’re somewhat alert and can be easily woken. It’s during this stage of sleep that people often indulge in brief “catnaps.” This stage allows for quick recovery without deep sleep effects.

• The person may experience:

  • hypnagogic images: hallucinations or vivid visual events e.g. falling These can be dream-like images that occur as one drifts into sleep.

  • hypnic jerk: knees, legs, or whole body jerks Sudden muscle contractions that can awaken the person.

NREM-Stage 2

• Still fairly light sleep; brain waves slow down even more, indicating a deeper sleep state.

• Brain produces sudden increases in brain wave frequency (little brain wave-bursts) known as sleep spindles. These spindles are thought to play a role in memory consolidation.

• If you were to schedule a “power nap” you’d want to wake up after this stage of sleep to avoid grogginess. Waking up after stage 2 allows for refreshment without deep sleep inertia.

• The first time you enter this stage it will last about 20 minutes. The duration of this stage increases throughout the night.

• Over the course of the night, you will spend ½ of your sleep in this stage. This stage is crucial for cognitive processing and memory consolidation.

NREM-Stages 3 and 4

• After about 30 minutes of sleep, your brainwaves slow down a lot, indicating very deep sleep.

• Your brainwave cycles are less than 1 cycle per second, compared to 15 cycles per second when you first fall asleep, demonstrating significant slowing of brain activity.

• This stage is called slow-wave sleep or delta sleep characterized by delta waves.

• If awakened you will be very groggy due to high sleep inertia and cognitive impairment.

• The first time you are in these rejuvenation stages, it will last about 30 minutes. The duration decreases throughout the night.

• Vital for restoring body’s growth hormones and good overall health. This aids in physical recovery and hormonal regulation. From stage 4, your brain begins to speed up and you go to stage 3, then 2..then… preparing for REM sleep.

Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep

• After you reach Stage 4, your brain waves will begin to pick up a little more speed and strength. You will move back up through Stages 3, 2, and 1 and then enter your first period of Rem Sleep This transition marks the beginning of active dreaming phase.

• A reoccurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. This is when most memorable dreams take place.

• It is also called paradoxical sleep because the muscles of the body are relaxed, but the other body systems are active. The brain is highly active but the body is essentially paralyzed.

Rem (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep

• Brain is very active resembling wakefulness on EEG.

• Body is essentially paralyzed with muscle atonia preventing movement.

• Body temperature increases, eyes move rapidly, heart beats faster, beta waves set in. Physiological arousal increases similar to waking state.

REM Rebound

• REM rebound: increased amounts of REM sleep after being deprived of REM sleep on earlier nights. This compensatory mechanism ensures adequate REM sleep.

• REM sleep in babies is 50%, and adults is 20%. Infants require more REM sleep for brain development.

• As infants sleep, the brain makes new neural connections. REM sleep supports synaptic plasticity and brain maturation.

• Myth: People deprived of REM sleep become paranoid, mentally ill. While deprivation can impair cognitive function, it doesn't cause serious mental illness.

Sleep Debt

• Adults need about 8 hours, or a little bit more, to feel good and function efficiently. Insufficient sleep has cumulative negative effects.

• Most Americans get significantly less than 8 hours of sleep leading to chronic sleep deprivation.

• Myth - Afternoon drowsiness is due to a big lunch. In reality, it is a result of sleep debt. Cumulative sleep loss causes increased sleepiness.

• Myth - People fall asleep when they are bored. In reality, restlessness is the normal response to boredom, not sleepiness. Sleepiness indicates underlying sleep deprivation or circadian misalignment.

Sleep Deprivation

• Effects of Sleep Loss

  • fatigue.

  • impaired concentration.

  • depressed immune system.

  • greater vulnerability to accidents. This significantly increases risk of errors and injuries.

Sleep Disorders

• Unpleasant/terrifying dreams occurring during REM sleep characterized by intense emotional content.

• Experienced more by children because they spend more sleep in REM state. They have longer REM periods.

• Can cause a strong emotional response from the mind leading to distress and anxiety.

• The dream may contain situations of danger, discomfort, psychological or physical terror. These dreams can stem from anxiety or trauma.

• Sufferers usually awaken in a state of distress and may be unable to return to sleep for a prolonged period of time, disrupting overall sleep quality.

Night Terrors

• Happens shortly after a person falls asleep, in the Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) stage of sleep, typically during deep sleep (stage 3 or 4).

• Wake up screaming and have no idea why. Sufferers have amnesia for the event.

• Not a nightmare as they occur during NREM and involve no dream recall.

• Most common in children (boys) between ages 2-8. Prevalence decreases with age.

Insomnia

• The inability to:

  • Get to sleep (sleep-onset insomnia)

  • Stay asleep (sleep-maintenance insomnia)

  • Persistently waking too early

  • Or get a good quality of sleep, causing daytime impairment.

• Affects 10% of the population.

• Short-term (acute) insomnia, which lasts for days or weeks due to stress or trauma.

• Long-term (chronic) insomnia that lasts for a month or more impacting daily functioning.

• There are lots of “remedies” which may actually worsen the problem.

  • Sleeping pills: addicting, prevent Rem sleep. They alter sleep architecture.

  • Alcohol: Prevents Rem Sleep, disrupting normal sleep patterns.

Sleep Walking (Somnambulism)

• The sleepwalker can walk, talk, and see, but will have little or no memory of the event when they wake up. This occurs during deep sleep stages.

• Most often occurs during the first few hours of sleeping and in stage 3/4 (deep sleep). This is when brain activity is most suppressed.

• If you have had night terrors, you are more likely to sleepwalk when older, suggesting shared underlying mechanisms.

Sleep Apnea

• Causes loud snoring, which is usually more prominent in obstructive sleep apnea due to airway obstruction.

• The person stops breathing for nearly half a minute or more leading to oxygen desaturation.

• Wake up momentarily, gasps for air, then falls back asleep, disrupting sleep continuity.

• Very common, especially in heavy males. Obesity is a major risk factor.

• Can be fatal due to cardiovascular strain and other complications.

• Roughly 4% of Americans have sleep apnea increasing risk of heart conditions and stroke.

Narcolepsy

• Sudden sleep seizure during waking state leading to uncontrolled and overwhelming sleepiness.

• May fall asleep at unpredictable or inappropriate times, such as during conversations or driving.

• The person suddenly slips into REM sleep during the day, bypassing normal sleep stages.

• Less than .001% of population with significant impact on daily life.

• A chronic condition for which there's no cure, requiring lifelong management.

• However, medications and lifestyle changes can help you manage the symptoms.

Cataplexy

• Cataplexy is often triggered by a strong emotion, most commonly laughter.

• A sudden loss of muscle tone (cataplexy) that leads to weakness and loss of muscle control triggered by emotions or stress.

Sleep Paralysis

• During sleep, the body paralyzes itself as a protection mechanism to prevent the movements that occur in the dream from causing the physical body to move. This prevents acting out dreams.

• Can be triggered before, during, or after normal sleep while the brain awakens leading to a state of conscious paralysis.

• This can lead to a state where the awakened sleeper feels paralyzed. It is often accompanied by anxiety and fear.

• Hypnagogic (transitional states to and from sleep) hallucination may occur in this state, enhancing fear and disorientation.

• Effects of sleep paralysis include heaviness or inability to move the muscles, rushing or pulsating noises, and brief hypnogogic or hypnopompic imagery. This can be a frightening experience.

Other Sleep Disorders

• Bruxism: Teeth grinding or clenching, often due to stress.

• Myoclonus: Sudden movement or flinch of a body part occurring in Stage 1 or 2. These are common and usually harmless.

Dreams

• Dreams are a universal human experience that occur mainly during REM sleep.

Freud’s Theory of Dreams

• Dreams are a roadway into our unconscious providing access to repressed desires and conflicts.

• Freud said dreaming had two main functions: to guard sleep and serve as a source for wish fulfillment.

  • Manifest Content (storyline) The literal content of the dream as it is experienced.

  • Latent Content (underlying meaning) The hidden psychological meaning behind the manifest content.

What We Dream

• Negative Emotional Content: 8 out of 10 dreams have negative emotional content reflecting common anxieties and fears.

• Failure Dreams: People commonly dream about failure, being attacked, pursued, rejected, or struck with misfortune reflecting feelings of vulnerability.

• Sexual Dreams: Contrary to our thinking, sexual dreams are sparse. Sexual dreams in men are 1 in 10; and in women 1 in 30. These dreams vary widely among individuals.

Truth About Dreams

• Despite his theories, there is no solid evidence to support Freud’s interpretations of latent dream content. Freud's dream interpretations are subjective and lack empirical validation.

• Dreams, do however, vary by age, gender, and culture reflecting personal experiences and societal influences.

• Children are more likely to dream about animals that are large and threatening, while adults dream more about pets reflecting different developmental stages.

• Women are more likely to dream about men and women; men are more likely to dream about men due to differences in social interactions.

What do people dream about?

• Finding Meaning in Dreams: Dr. William Domhoff

  • men dream of other males focusing on competition and aggression.

  • women dream about males and females equally highlighting relationships and social interactions.

  • men have more physical aggression reflecting societal gender norms.

  • women dream as victims of physical aggression highlighting feelings of vulnerability.

  • dreams differ based on the culture’s “personality” reflecting cultural values and norms.

  • men’s dreams involve weapons, tools, cars reflecting cultural associations.

  • women’s dreams involve people they know, personal appearances, issues on family and home, highlighting personal relationships and concerns.

Culture and Dreams

• Many studies have supported the theory that culture plays a large role in dream content showing that dreams are influenced by cultural experiences.

  • Ghana: Attacking cows.

  • Americans: Public nakedness

  • Mexican-Americans: Death

• There is strong support for the idea that dreams reflect life events that are important to the dreamer reinforcing the connection between dreams and waking life.

Why do dreams seem random?

• First dream connects with events from the previous day, incorporating recent experiences.

• Later dreams tend to build on a theme in the previous dream, creating a narrative flow.

• Final dream is remembered most vividly (recency effect) but has very little to do with the previous days' events, or events that lay ahead reflecting the brains cognitive processing.

Lucid Dreaming

• Any dream in which one is aware that one is dreaming allowing for conscious awareness.

• The dreamer has greater chances to exert some degree of control over their participation or manipulate experiences, changing the outcome of scenarios.

• Lucid dreams can be realistic and vivid enhancing the experiences and the senses.

• Higher amounts of beta-1 frequency band (13–19 Hz) characterized by heightened cognitive activity.

• Increased amount of activity in the parietal lobes making lucid dreaming a conscious process, allowing self-awareness and reflection.

Modern Theories

• Information Processing: An important memory-related function of sorting and shifting through the day’s experiences. We tend to dream more when we are more stressed showing the connection between dreams and stress.

• Physiological function: Neural activity during Rem sleep which provides necessary brain stimulation and growth supporting brain development and maintenance.

• Activation-synthesis: Dreams are products of activities in the pons in the brainstem sending random signals to the upper part of the brain during REM sleep creating a storyline.

• Cognitive Theory: Dream are the embodiment of thoughts.

  • A dream is a pictorial representation of the dreamer's conceptions demonstrating connection between dreams and the wakeful environment..

The Brain and Activation-Synthesis Theory

• Cerebral cortex: Controls complex thought processes responsible for higher-level cognition.

• Thalamus: Part of the forebrain that relays information from sensory organs to the cerebral cortex responsible for relaying senses such as sight, smell, etc.

• Pons: Part of the hindbrain that relays messages between the cerebellum and the cortex responsible for motor control and arousal.

Activation-information-mode model (AIM)

• Revised version of the Activation-Synthesis hypothesis integrating cognitive and activation aspects.

• Information that is accessed during waking hours can have an influence on the synthesis of dreams, showing the strong influence of the conscious environment on the unconscious.

• When the brain is “making up” a dream to explain its own activation, using random firing to create a storyline.

• It uses meaningful bits and pieces of the person’s experiences from the previous day or the last few days rather than just random items from memory demonstrating that dreams are not completely random.

Summary of Dream Theories

• Freud's wish-fulfillment: Dreams provide a