AP World History Review Flashcards

  • State: a territory that is politically organized under a single government

  • Bureaucracy: a government entity arranged in a hierarchical fashion that carries out the will of the emperor

  • Monotheistic: belief in ONE god

  • Polytheistic: the act of worshipping more than one god

Developments in Song China

  • Main idea: how did the song dynasty maintain and justify its rule? (simplified: how did the Song dynasty run their state and stay in charge?)

  • Song Dynasty

    • Power in Song China 1) Confucianism: a philosophy that taught human society is hierarchical, there is a prescribed and proper order to everything

      • filial piety: the confucius idea of honoring your elders, parents, and those superior to you from confucius philosophy

      • The song dynasty carried over a revival of Confucianism from the Tang dynasty which came right before the Song turning it into Neo-Confucianism (Buddhism and Confucian mixed)

    • Women in Song China 1) Stripped of legal rights 2) Endured social restrictions

      • Limited access to education

      • Made to endure the practice of foot binding (reinforced confucius ideology, Chinese tradition of women where they bind their feet, crippled and immobilized them. The smaller your feet were, the more social status you had)

    • 2) Imperial Bureaucracy

    • Bureaucratic jobs were earned on the basis of merit (most qualified people got the jobs)

    • Civil service exams: based on confucius texts

    • Influence on neighboring countries

    • Buddhism: based on the four noble truths

      • Life is suffering, we suffer because we crave, we cease suffering when we cease craving, the Eightfold path leads to the cessation of suffering and craving

      • Similar to hinduism in believing reincarnation and the ultimate goal is to dissolve into the universe (nirvana)

      • Branches of Buddhism: arose as Buddhism interacted with other Asian cultures 1) Theravada Buddhism

        • Sri Lanka

        • Practiced mostly by monks
          2) Mahayana Buddhism

        • East Asian

        • Encourage broader participation in Buddhist practices

    • Economy in Song China 1) Commercialization of economy

      • Manufacturers and artisans began to produce more goods than they could consume

      • Sold excess goods in markets in China and across Eurasia (mainly porcelain and silk)
        2) Agricultural innovations

      • Champa rice: easily farmable, drought resistant rice that increased food production (from Vietnam)
        3) Transportation Innovations

      • Expansion of the Grand Canal: enabled china to become the most populous trading area in the world (connected two rivers)

      • Facilitated trade and communication among China’s various regions

Developments in Dar-al-Islam

  • Dar-al-Islam: translate to “House of Islam”, refers to all the places in the world where Islam was the organizing principle faith of this time

  • Monotheistic religions you need to know: 1) Judaism

    • Ethnic religion of the Jews, centered on the Torah
      2) Christianity

    • Established by the Jewish prophet Jesus Christ
      3) Islam

    • Founded by the prophet Muhammad

    • Believers used religious principles to shape their societies

  • Abbasid Caliphate

    • Ethnically Arab

    • Abbasid Caliphate started to break apart and form new Muslim empires (however, the dominant empires were led by ethnic Turks, not arabs)

    • Seljuk empire

    • Ethnically Turks

    • Fought the Abbasid Caliphate and set up their own state (were in power of the religion)

  • Arab Muslim empires were fading while Turkic Muslim empires rose up to replace them

    • Turkic empires: continuity 1) Military administered their states 2) Established sharia law

      • Legal code based on Quran

    • Cultural and scientific innovations

    • Scholars made advancements in mathematics, science, medicine, etc

    • Scholars preserved the works of Greek philosophers such as Aristotle and Plato by translating them in Arab

    • Lots of these works were done in the House of Wisdom in Baghdad during the Golden Age of Islam

    • Expansion of Muslim Rule
      1) Military expansion
      2) Muslim merchants
      3) Muslim missionaries

    • Sufism: mystical branch of Islam

South and Southeast Asia

  • Three belief systems 1) Hinduism 2) Buddhism 3) Islam

    • South Asia: Hinduism was most widespread while Buddhism was second

    • Southeast Asia: Buddhism was most widespread while Islam was second

    • Bhakti Movement 1) Innovation on traditional polytheistic Hinduism

      • Bhakti movement emphasized the devotion to just one of the Hindu Gods
        2) Mounted challenges to social and gender hierarchies

    • State building in South Asia

    • Rajput kingdoms: muslim led kingdoms

    • Vijayanagara empire: hindu led empire

    • State building in Southeast Asia

    • Majapahit Kingdom: buddhist kingdom

    • Khmer empire: originally hindu but converted to buddhism empire

Americas

  • State building in the Americas

    • Mesoamerica: Aztecs

    • Tenochtitlan

    • Aztec administration (decentralized) 1) Created an elaborate tribute system

      • Conquered people were required to provide labor, contribution of goods such as food, animals, building materials, etc to the Aztecs
        2) Enslaved people played large role in their religions

      • Many became candidates for human sacrifice

    • Andean civilizations: Inca

    • Incan administration (highly centralized)
      1) Developed an elaborate bureaucracy with rigid hierarchy of officials
      2) Mit’a system: required all people under their rule to provide labor on state projects such as farms, mining, military service, state construction projects, etc

    • Mississippian culture: first large scale civilization based off the Mississippi River

    • Large towns dominated smaller, satellite settlements politically

Africa

  • State building in Africa

    • Southeast Africa

    • Swahili civilization 1) Politically independent with common social hierarchy

      • Put merchant elite above commoners
        2) Deeply influenced by Muslim traders

      • New language: Swahili

        • Descended from indigenous African Bantu languages but used Arabic alphabet and script

      • Swahili states rapidly became Islamic as a result of Muslim influence which increased their integration into the larger Islam world of trade

    • West Africa

    • Mali, Ghana, Songhay

    • Great Zimbabwe

    • Powerful African trade who grew from trade, it grew extremely wealthy from trade and shifted to gold exports

    • Never converted to Islam

    • Ethiopia: mostly christian

Europe

  • Developments in Europe

    • Dominated by christianity
      1) Eastern orthodox
      2) Roman Catholicism

    • Byzantine Empire: orthodox

    • Kievan Rus: orthodox

    • Western Europe: roman catholic

    • Europe was split up into lots of small states isolated from the rest of the world

    • Christianity was able to bring Europe together and was the leading power

    • Muslim and Islamic influence in Europe

    • Muslims conquered much of the Iberian Peninsula

    • Europe was highly decentralized and fragmented

    • Feudalism: a system of allegiances between powerful lords, monarchs, and knights

      • Vessels received land from their lords in exchange for military service

    • Manorialism

      • Peasants (surfs) were bound to land and worked it in exchange for protection of lords and his military forces

      • Center of political and economic power was in the hands of landowning lords (nobility)

Networks of Exchange

  • Networks of exchange:
    1) Silk roads
    2) Indian ocean network
    3) Trans-saharan trade

  • During this time, each of these networks increased in geographic scale and that led to further connections among states

  • Range of these networks expanded due to innovations in commercial practices and technological innovations

  • Increased connectivity between all these places caused various states to grow wealthy and powerful due to their participation in these networks

  • Increased interconnectivity caused the rise of powerful trading cities while also causing the collapse of other cities

  • Silk Roads

    • Luxury goods trading network that stretched across Eurasia

    • Chinese silk & porcelain

    • Increase in demand caused an increase in production of these goods by Chinese, Indian, and Persian artisans
      1) Innovations facilitated the expansion of these networks

    • Transportation technology

      • Caravanserai: inns along the Silk Roads that provided safety, a place to rest, and even change animals for merchants

      • Brought merchants from all different cultures and backgrounds together and created for significant transfers (cultural and technological)

    • Commercial practices

      • Money economies: uses paper money to facilitate exchange, unlike a barter economy which uses goods as currency (first developed in China)

      • Flying money system: a merchant would input money and withdraw that money at another location

      • Credit (banking houses): a merchant could present a bill of exchange with amount of money and merchants name and be able to receive that amount of money

      • Led to an increase in trade in the silk roads
        2) Increase in trade led to the rise of powerful trading cities that grew and flourished precisely because they were located along these routes

      • Kashgar: attractive stop for merchants, grew in power and wealth

  • Indian Ocean network 1) A thorough understanding of monsoon winds made trade along this network possible 2) A large bulk of what was traded along these routes included more common goods like textiles and spices

    • Causes of expansion: 1) Magnetic compass

      • Helped merchants know which direction to sail in
        2) Astrolabe

      • Tool for measuring the stars and then comparing them to star charts which helped reckon latitude and longitude
        3) New ship designs

      • Chinese “Junk”
        4) Various forms of credit

    • Effects of expansion: 1) Growth of states

      • Swahili City-states: collection of independent city-states along Africa’s east coast

      • Acted as brokers for goods originating from the African interior

        • Gold, ivory, enslaved people

      • Became islamic and got connected into the larger trading world of Dar-Al-Islam
        2) Diasporic communities: a settlement of ethnic people in a location other than their homeland

      • Arab and Persian communities established in East Africa
        3) New language

      • Swahili language

    • Zheng He: sent by the Ming Dynasty to go throughout the Indian Ocean enrolling states in China’s tributary system

    • China’s advanced maritime and navigational technology were spread to the various places Zheng He visited

  • Trans-saharan Trade Network

    • Causes of expansion:

    • innovations and transportation technologies: 1) Camel saddle

      • used for riding camels and helped to transport big loads of cargo across the desert

    • Effects of expansion: 1) Growth of states

      • Empire of Mali

      • Conversion of its leadership to Islam

      • Very wealth from gold trade

      • Mansa Musa

        • Further monopolized trade between the North and interior of the continent

        • increased wealth of Mali

  • Consequences of connectivity

    • Cultural effects: 1) transfer of religion of belief systems

      • Ex: Buddhism, Islam, Hinduism
        2) literary & artistic transfers

      • Translated Greek and Roman classics in Arabic

      • Made extensive commentaries on works

      • Including their own developments in philosophy and medical practices

      • Works were later transferred to Europe which eventually led to the Renaissance
        3) Scientific and Technological Innovations

      • Gunpowder
        4) Rise and fall of Cities

      • Ex of rise: Hangzhou, ex of fall: Baghdad
        5) Travelers wrote about their Experiences

      • Marco Polo, Margery Kempe

      • Ibn Battuta

      • Young Muslim scholar from Morocco who traveled all over Dar-al-Islam over the course of 30 years. He took detailed notes about places, people, rulers, and culture

    • Environmental effects 1) Transfer of crops

      • Champs rice
        2) Transfer of Diseases

      • Bubonic plague: carried by rats and fleas along the trading routes and spread across Asia and Europe

    • The Mongol Empire (Pax Mongolixa) 1) Established the largest land-based empire of all time 2) Networks of exchange flourished significantly

      • The silk roads flourished the most when large empires controlled the routes because they could provide safety and continuity along them

      • Entire Eurasian world came under their domination

      • Encouraged international trade and extracted great wealth as the facilitators of commerce on the Silk Roads

      • The Mongols facilitated an unprecedented increase in communication and cooperation across the empire as
        3) Facilitated technological and cultural transfers

      • Technological

      • Created conditions for transfer of Greek and Islamic medical knowledge to Western Europe

      • Cultural

      • Adopted the Uyghur script

Land Based Empires

  • Land based empire: an empire whose power comes from the extent of its territorial holdings

  • Sunni Muslims: believed that the rightful successor of Muhammad could be anyone spiritually fit for the office

  • Shi’a Muslims: believed that only blood relatives of Muhmmad were his legitimate successors

  • Legitimized: methods a ruler uses to establish their authority

  • Consolidated: the methods a ruler uses to transfer power from other groups to themselves

  • Big Idea: in the time period 1450-1750, land-based empires were expanding

  • Gunpowder empires: 1) Ottoman empire

    • Sunni Muslim, conquered Constantinople and renamed it Istanbul by using gunpowder weapons

    • Janissaries: Christian boys taken from their homes and converted to Islam and turned them into soldiers
      2) Safavid empire

    • Founded in the beginning of the 16th century

    • Under the leadership of Shah Ismail, the Safavid empire expanded rapidly using gunpowder

    • Enslaved Christian boys from the Caucasus Region as soldiers to the Shah

    • Shi’a Muslim
      3) Mughal empire

    • Founded in the first half of the 16th century

    • Expanded rapidly through use of gunpowder

    • Muslim empire

      • Under the ruler Akbar, religious tolerance was practiced throughout the Mughal Empire
        4) Qing Dynasty (Manchu Empire)

    • After the Ming Dynasty (ethnically Han)

    • Led conquests of expansion using gunpowder weapons

    • Empires compared 1) Land-based 2) Expanded rapidly 3) Use gunpowder to expand 4) Ethnically different from subjects

      • Qing/Mughal

      • Safavids/Ottomans

    • Rivals between empires

    • Safavid vs Mughal Conflict

      • Series of wars fought over territory that the Mughals previously occupied but Safavids tried to take

      • Shi’a (Safavid), Sunni (Mughal)

  • Administration of empires (how rulers legitimized and consolidated their power)

    • Administration methods: 1) Formation of large bureaucracies

      • Devshirme system

        • Ottomans used this system to staff their bureaucracy with highly trained individuals

        • Top performers were appointed to elite positions in the Ottoman bureaucracy
          2) Development of military professionals

      • Janissaries
        3) Religious ideas, art, and monumental architecture

      • Divine right of kings: the idea that monarchs were Gods representative on Earth

      • Imperial portraits in the Qing Dynasty of Emperor Kangxi surrounded by confucius wisdom

      • Sun temple of the Inca Empire, Taj Mahal in India, Palace of Versailles in France
        4) Innovations on tax collection systems

      • Zamindar system

        • Employed by the Mughal empire

        • Zamindars: elite landowners who were granted authority to tax peasants living on their land on behalf of the imperial government (eventually grew corrupt)

        • Tax farming

        • Used by the Ottomans

        • The right to tax subjects of the empire was awarded to the highest bidder (whoever won the bid had the right to collect taxes from a certain group of people)

        • Tribute List

        • Utilized by Aztec rulers

        • Sent tribute lists filled with goods that conquered places were required to send to the imperial seed in tribute

  • Belief systems in Empires

    • Christianity in Europe

    • Heart of the Roman Catholic Church is in Rome

    • Church corruption
      1) Simony: people buying their way into positions of power in the church
      2) Sale of Indulgences: people paying money to get their sins forgiven and acquire a spot in heaven

    • Martin Luther: German Monk who nailed his 95 Theses to the door of a church

      • Excommunicated Luther

      • Luther’s idea’s spread thanks to the invention of the printing press

    • Protestant Reformation - change that happened in Christianity in Europe

      • Dominance of Catholicism - continuity

    • Councils of Trent: series of meetings where Catholics cleaned up a lot of the corruption

      • Reaffirmed that their doctrine of salvation was just fine

    • Both reformations led to significant growth of Christianity

    • Islam: 1) Shah Ismail declared that the Safavid Empire would adhere to Shi’a Islam

      • Put them at odds with the other Sunni Muslim empires in the area

      • Aggravated and intensified the split between these two branches of empire

    • Development with Sikhism

    • Sikhism: a syncretic blend of both Hindu and Islamic doctrines

      • Continuity: 1) Retained several important doctrines

        • Belief in one God

        • Cycle of reincarnation and death

      • Change:
        1) Disregarded the gender hierarchies of Islam
        2) Discarded the caste system of Hinduism

Maritime Empires

  • Absolutism: all political power under the monarch

  • Causes of European Exploration 1) Adoption and Innovation of Maritime Technologies

    • Technologies came from the Classical Greek, Islamic, and Asian worlds

      • Magnetic compass: China

      • Astrolabe: ancient Greece and the Arab world

      • Helped sailors know their latitude

      • Lateen sail: arab world

      • Enabled them to take wind on both sides

    • Europeans made their own innovations in shipbuilding

      • Caravel: small ships made by the Portuguese which allowed for navigation within rivers and smaller coastal areas

    • Improved understanding of regional wind patterns in Atlantic and Indian Oceans

    • These technologies made it possible and easier for Europeans to travel along the sea and allow for them to discover new areas to create colonies
      2) Growth of state power (centralization of power)

    • Monarchs were slowly gaining more and more power over the nobility

    • Europeans had a big incentive to find other routes, namely sea-based routes, to Asia which would allow them to trade on their own terms
      3) Economic

    • Mercantilism: a state-driven economic system that characterized imperial European states during this period (a country's power is based on wealth, goal is to export more than they were importing)

      • Favorable balance of trade: when states organize their economies around exports and avoid imports as much as possible

      • Colonies existed only to enrich their imperial countries

    • Joint-stock company: a limited liability business, often chartered by the state, that was funded by a group of private investors ➔ Investors who pooled their money to finance the exploration could only lose what they invested

      • Dutch East India company (VOC)

      • States relied on merchants to expand their influence in far-off lands while merchants relied on states to grant them monopolies on various regions of trade

  • Establishing Maritime Empires

    • Portugal

    • Prince Henry the Navigator: brought sailors and mapmakers together to find out how to sail down the Atlantic coast of Africa

    • Established trading post empire around Africa and the Indian Ocean

      • Set up trading posts called “factory”s in places that served to control trade throughout the region

    • Spain

    • Queen Isabell and King Ferdinand sponsor Christopher Columbus’ journey to sail across the Atlantic in search of a Western route to the spice trade

      • He instead ran into the Americas and spanish trips to the New World multiplied and started colonization

      • Marked the opening of the Trans-Atlantic Trade

    • Colonized the Philippines

    • France

    • Sponsored Westward expeditions in order to find an Atlantic sea route to Asia but instead ran into the Americas and set up a presence in Canada

    • England

    • Queen Elizabeth I sponsored expeditions to the Americas (Sir Walter Raleigh) and established England's first colony in Roanoke Island called Virginia and later Jamestown

    • Set up a few trading posts along the coast near the Mughal Empire

    • Dutch

    • Sent ships to challenge Portuguese control over the Indian Ocean trade

    • Colonized in the Americas (New Amsterdam)

  • The Columbian Exchange

    • The transfer of new diseases, food, plants, and animals between the Eastern and Western hemispheres

    • Refers to environmental phenomena 1) Disease

      • Indigenous people of the Amerias had zero immunity to diseases from Eurasia

      • Europeans introduced smallpox and measles to the Americas

      • Malaria: carried by disease vectors like mosquitoes
        2) Food and plants

      • Greatly affected populations both in the New World and the Old World

      • Europeans: brought olives, wheat, grapes, rice, bananas, sugar

      • Americas: maize, potatoes
        ➔ Contributed to healthier populations which led to longer lifespans which resulted in population explosions

      • Plantations among the Americas arrived based on cash crops
        ➔ Cash cropping: a method of agriculture that focuses on growing crops, usually a single crop, primarily for export

      • Ex: sugarcane
        3) Animals

      • Europeans introduced pigs, sheep, cattle, and horse to the Americas
        ➔ Horse was by far the most consequential animal

  • Resistance to European Expansion

    • Resistance to imperialism: 1) Resistance from some Asian states against the intrusion of western powers in the Indian Ocean

      • Tokugawa Japan: Shogun was open to trade with Portuguese at first but eventually felt it was a threat to the unity of Japan due to the spread of Christianity
        ➔ Suppressed the Christian missionaries and the believers sometimes through violence
        ➔ Almost completely isolated itself from European commerce
        2) Resistance on the global level in European states themselves

      • The Fronde: a series of rebellions in France against Absolutism
        ➔ New edicts were passed to fund imperial expansion which caused an increase in taxation
        ➔ French nobility led rebellions
        3) Resistance from the enslaved

      • Maroon societies: communities of free blacks and runaway slaves
        ➔ Rebelled against colonial troops by Queen Nanny and signed a treaty to recognize the freedom of this community

  • Effect: Expansions of African States

    • Expansion of maritime trading networks also fostered the growth of some African states who participated in them, thus connecting these states to global economic linkages these networks represented, even if the networks were becoming increasingly European-centered

    • Asante Empire
      ➔ Able to provide high desired good that Europeans were after such as gold, ivory, and enslaved people which made this empire rich

    • Kingdom of the Kongo
      ➔ Had strong diplomatic ties with the Portuguese and provided them with things like gold, copper, and enslaved people
      ➔ King of the Kongo converted to Christianity to facilitate trade with Christian states

  • Change and Continuity in Networks of Exchange

    • Indian Ocean network ➔ Change:

      • Entrance and massive power grabs of European States into this network
        ➔ Continuity:

      • Middle Eastern, South Asian, East Asian, and Southeast Asian merchants continued to use the Indian Ocean Network

      • Long established merchants like the Gujaratis continued to make use of Indian Ocean Network

      • Despite growing European dominance on the sea, overland routes like the Silk Roads were still almost entirely controlled by various Asia land-based powers

      • Most notably Ming China, Qing, and the Ottoman Empire

      • Peasants and artisan labor continued in many regions as demand for food and consumer goods increased as a result of multiplying trade connections

      • Ex: as demand for cotton increased, farmers in South Asia increased their production for export

      • European entrance into the trade network increased profits for Europeans and many merchants who had always used the network for trade

  • Change in the Atlantic System 1) Opening of the Atlantic System

    • Movement of goods, wealth, and laborers between the eastern and western hemispheres made Europeans rich and powerful
      2) Sugar
      3) Silver

    • Effects of silver:
      1) Silver was used to purchase luxury goods from China
      ➔ Satisfied the Chinese demand for silver
      ➔ Further developed the commercialization of China’s economy
      2) Goods that silver purchased were traded on the Atlantic System
      ➔ Further enriching all who participated
      4) Coerced Labor

    • Forced indigenous labor

    • Indentured servitude

    • African slavery

    • The massive changes that occurred in the opening of the Atlantic System was maintained by the global flow of silver and trade monopolies granted by states to joint-stock companies

  • Changes in Labor Systems

    • Americas
      ➔ Europeans made use of existing labor systems and made new ones
      ➔ Existing labor system: Mit’a System (Inca Empire)
      ➔ Spanish used the Mit’a System for their mining expeditions
      ➔ WAS NOT AN EXACT COPY OF THE INCA VERSION

    • New labor systems: 1) Chattel slavery

      • Slavery in which purchaser has total ownership over enslaved person

      • Race-based and hereditary

      • Effects of chattel slavery:
        1) Europeans purchased male slaves 2:1
        ➔ Main economic engine of imperial empires in the Americas was difficult agricultural work and mining
        ➔ Significantly impacted the demographics of various African states
        2) Size of Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade > Indian Ocean & Mediterranean Counterparts
        3) Racial component of Atlantic Slave System
        ➔ In the Americas, slavery became identified with blackness
        ➔ Provided the justification for the brutality of slavery

      • Social effects of the African slave trade:
        1) Significant gender imbalance
        ➔ Especially in West African States
        2) Changing of family structures
        ➔ Rise of polygyny
        ➔ The phenomenon of men marrying more than one woman (multiple wives)
        3) Cultural Synthesis
        ➔ Growing emergence of creole (mixed) languages in the Caribbean and Brazil
        2) Indentured Servitude

      • Laborer would sign contract that bound them to a particular work for a period of time
        ➔ Usually seven years

      • At the end of the contract, the laborer could go free
        3) Encomienda System

      • Used by the Spanish to divide indigenous Americans among Spanish settlers
        ➔ Americans forced to provide labor for Spanish in exchange for food and protection
        4) Hacienda

      • Indigenous laborers forced to work fields of large plantations known as “haciendas”
        ➔ Amounted to a situation not much different from slavery

  • Encomienda had nothing to do with land ownership and everything to do with controlling the indigenous people while hacienda centered on land ownership as the main vehicle for controlling the indigenous population

  • Christianity in the Americas

    • Countries such as Spain and Portugal sent Christian missionaries (jesuits) to their colonies in order to convert the indigenous people

    • In some cases, indigenous groups outwardly adopted Christianity, but privately continued to practice their own religious beliefs

    • The effect of all of this was a religious syncretism that resulted in a blending of some Christian beliefs and practices with indigenous beliefs and practices

  • Effects: Changing Social Hierarchies

    • Social hierarchies 1) Ethnic and religious diversity

      • The Jews were booted from their land in Spain and Portugal but emigrated into the Ottoman Empire
        2) Rise of New Political Elites

      • Spanish imposed a new social hierarchy known as the casta system on their colonial holdings in the Americas
        ➔ Organized colonial society into a series of ranks based on race and ancestry

  • Prior to the imposing of the Casta system, native peoples were part of a wide variety of linguistic and cultural groups ➔ The Casta system erased much of that cultural complexity and ordered their society by the standards of a small minority of Spanish elites

    • Transition from the Ming to the Qing Dynasty in China
      ➔ Manchu would reserve the best bureaucratic positions in the empire for ethnically Manchu people
      3) Struggles of Existing Elites

    • With increasing power of monarchs, influence of elite members of society began to decrease

    • Russian boyars made up the aristocratic land-owning class in Russia who had lots of power and influence until Peter the Great

Revolutions

  • Nationalism: a sense of commonality among a people based on shared language, religion, social customs, and often linked with a desire for territory

  • Steam engine: a machine that converted fossil fuel into mechanical energy

  • Meiji Restoration: a period of time where Japan sought to escape foreign domination by adopting much of the industrial practices that had made the west powerful

  • Transnational corporations: a company that is established and controlled in one country but also establishes large operations in many other countries

  • The Enlightenment ideas provided the ideological framework for the revolutions

  • The Enlightenment

    • Enlightenment: an intellectual movement that applied new ways of understanding, such as rationalism, and empiricist approaches to both the natural world and human relationships 1) Rationalism

      • reason , rather than emotion or any external authority, is the most reliable source of true knowledge
        2) Empiricism

      • The idea that true knowledge is gained through the senses, mainly through rigorous experimentation

    • Empirical and rational ways of thinking developed during the Scientific Revolution
      ➔ Scientists tossed biblical and religious authority out the window and used the rigorous process of reason to discover how the world really worked
      ➔ Enlightenment thinkers applied these methods to the study of society

    • Crucial concept of the Enlightenment: the questioning and re-examination of the role of religion (Christianity was the main religion in Europe)

    • The Enlightenment showed a shift in authority from outside sources (such as the Bible) to inside sources of a person

    • New belief systems:
      1) Deism
      ➔ Exceedingly popular among Enlightenment thinkers
      2) Atheism
      ➔ Complete rejection of religious belief

    • New Enlightenment ideas

      • Political ideas: 1) Individualism

        • The most basic element of society was the individual human and not collective groups
          2) Natural rights

        • Individual humans are born with certain rights that cannot be infringed upon by governments or any other entity

          • Ex: John Locke, argued that each human being was born with natural rights of Life, liberty, and property
            3) Social contract
            Began in 1776

        • Human societies, endowed with natural rights, must construct government of their own will to protect their natural rights

  • Effects of Enlightenment Ideas

    • Enlightenment's emphasis on the rejection of established traditions and new ideas about how political power ought to work played a significant role in each of these great upheavals

    • Enlightenment effects: ➔ These revolutions created intensified nationalism 1) Major revolutions 2) Expansion of suffrage

      • Suffrage means the right to vote
        3) Abolition of slavery
        4) End of Serfdom

      • In the transition from agricultural economy to industrial economy, serfs became more unnecessary and caused peasant revolts
        5) Calls for Women’s suffrage

      • Feminist movements

      • Ex: Olympe de Gouge, the document of the rights of women

  • Causes of Revolutions 1) Nationalism

    • Some states attempted to use this growing nationalistic fervor to their advantage in order to foster a sense of unity among their people
      2) Political Dissent

    • Widespread discontent with monarchist and imperial rule
      ➔ Revolutions took place in the context of a much more generalized rejection of authority across the world
      3) New ways of thinking

    • The development of new ideologies and systems of government

    • New ideologies: 1) Popular sovereignty ➔ The power to govern was in the hands of the people 2) Democracy ➔ People have the right to vote and influence the policies of the government 3) Liberalism Began in 1789

      • Victory against Britain was a big deal because it provided the template for other nations throughout the world for a successful overthrow of oppressive power and the establishment of a republican style government

      • An economic and political ideology that emphasized the protection of civil rights, representative government, the protection of private property, and economic freedom

  • The Atlantic Revolutions 1) American Revolution Began in 1789

    • British colonies in American independently developed a culture, system of government, and economic framework without interference from Britain

    • New taxes, curtailment of freedoms, and adoption of enlightenment principles led to the beginning of the American revolution
      ➔ Declaration of independence is filled with these enlightenment principles
      2) French Revolution

    • When Louis XVI attempted to tighten his control over France to cover his own debuts the people of France rebelled and overthrew the government

    • Establishment of The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
      ➔ Emphasized natural rights and popular sovereignty
      3) Haitian Revolution
      Started annexing territory all over Europe while Britain and France followed appeasement

    • Haiti was a French colony and so the start of the French Revolution in the mainland inspired black slaves

    • Toussaint L'ouverture led the enslaved Haitians and defeated the French
      4) Latin American Revolutions
      Started annexing territory all over Europe while Britain and France followed appeasement

    • People of Latin America started adopting enlightenment ideas and resent the control of their imperial powers

    • Creole (European heritage but born in the Americas) were upset about Peninsulares getting most of the power ➔ Simon Bolivar appealed to colonial subjects with enlightenment ideas (Letter from Jamaica)

      • Letter from Jamaica included right to self rule and popular sovereignty

    • One Latin American colony after another won its independence

  • Other Nationalist Movements

    • While nationalism was a prime factor in the full-blown revolutions we just talked about, there were also many other nationalist movements that resulted not in
      Established the largest land-based empire of all time
      ➔ Steamships allowed for goods to be transported quickly and to further distances
      revolution but calls for a higher degree of self-rule in some cases and national unification in other cases
      1) Propaganda Movement (Philippines)

    • Filipino students started publishing enlightenment ideas and calling for independence

    • Filipino revolution broke out at the end of the century
      2) Unification of Italy and Germany

    • Italy and Germany were originally made up of many fragmented states but was unified because of nationalism

  • Industrial Revolution 1) Crop rotation

    • Industrial revolution: the process by which states transitioned from primarily agrarian economies to industrial economies (transition from doing stuff by hand to machines)
      ➔ Fundamentally changed the world’s balance of political power, reordered societies, and made the industrial nations rich

    • Industrial Revolution started in Britain

    • Prior to the Industrial Revolution, many places in Europe, especially Britain, experience an agricultural revolution in which the amount of food grown on farms increased significantly ➔ Kept part of the land unplanted, so the fertility of the soil would be maintained 2) Seed drill Ex: Prague Spring

      • Ensured seeds could be planted more efficiently and accurately which led to less waste and greater harvests

    • Led to increased lifespan and population growth

    • Rapid urbanization of farmers moving to urban areas for labor opportunities

    • Entrepreneurs felt safe to risk investment which contributed to Britain's head start in industrialization

  • The Factory System

    • Factory: a place where goods for sale were mass-produced by machines
      Ex: Prague Spring
      ➔ Spinning jenny, steam engine, interchangeable parts

  • Spread of Industrialization

    • Effect of the steam power (steam engine)