Untitled Flashcards Set

### Study Guide: Modules 18–29 (AP Psychology)

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### Modules 18–20: Sensation and Perception

#### Module 18: Vision

- The Eye: Know the parts (cornea, iris, lens, retina) and their functions in focusing light and processing visual information.

- Retina: Contains rods (low-light, peripheral vision) and cones (color, detail).

- Optic Nerve: Transmits visual information to the brain.

- Visual Processing: 

  - Feature Detection: Neurons in the brain’s visual cortex respond to specific features (edges, movement).

  - Parallel Processing: Processing multiple aspects of a scene (color, motion, depth) simultaneously.

#### Module 19: Perceptual Organization

- Gestalt Principles: The brain organizes visual information into a whole:

  - Figure-ground: Differentiating objects from the background.

  - Grouping: Rules like proximity, similarity, and continuity.

- Depth Perception:

  - Binocular Cues: Require both eyes (e.g., retinal disparity).

  - Monocular Cues: Use one eye (e.g., linear perspective, texture gradient).

- Motion Perception: Understanding apparent motion and real motion.

#### Module 20: Hearing

- The Ear:

  - Outer Ear: Funnels sound waves.

  - Middle Ear: Transfers vibrations via the ossicles (hammer, anvil, stirrup).

  - Inner Ear: Cochlea converts vibrations into neural signals.

- Theories of Pitch Perception:

  - Place Theory: Different frequencies stimulate different parts of the cochlea.

  - Frequency Theory: The rate of nerve impulses matches the frequency of the tone.

- Hearing Loss: Distinguish between sensorineural and conductive hearing loss.

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### Modules 21–23: States of Consciousness

#### Module 21: Other Senses

- Touch: Comprised of pressure, warmth, cold, and pain.

- Pain:

  - Gate-Control Theory: Spinal cord regulates pain signals.

- Taste: Sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami.

- Smell (Olfaction): Linked closely to memory and emotion.

- Kinesthetic Sense: Awareness of body part position.

- Vestibular Sense: Balance and head movement via the inner ear.

#### Module 22: Consciousness and Hypnosis

- Consciousness: Awareness of self and environment.

- Hypnosis: A social interaction involving heightened suggestibility. 

  - Theories: Social influence and dissociation.

#### Module 23: Sleep and Dreams

- Sleep Cycles: NREM (1-3 stages) and REM sleep (dreaming stage).

- Functions of Sleep: Memory consolidation, energy restoration, growth.

- Sleep Disorders: Insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, night terrors.

- Dream Theories: Freud’s wish-fulfillment, information processing, activation-synthesis.

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### Modules 24–26: Learning

#### Module 24: Classical Conditioning

- Key Concepts:

  - US, UR, NS, CS, CR.

  - Acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination.

- Pioneers: Ivan Pavlov (dog experiments).

#### Module 25: Operant Conditioning

- Key Concepts:

  - Reinforcement (positive/negative).

  - Punishment (positive/negative).

  - Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior.

- Schedules of Reinforcement:

  - Fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-interval.

- Pioneers: B.F. Skinner (Skinner box).

#### Module 26: Cognitive Learning

- Observational Learning: Learning by watching others (modeling).

- Pioneers: Albert Bandura (Bobo doll experiment).

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### Modules 27–29: Memory

#### Module 27: Memory Encoding

- Key Processes:

  - Encoding: Getting information into memory.

  - Storage: Retaining information over time.

  - Retrieval: Getting information back out.

- Types of Encoding:

  - Semantic (meaning), visual (images), and acoustic (sounds).

#### Module 28: Memory Storage

- Three-Stage Model:

  - Sensory Memory: Immediate recording of sensory information.

  - Short-Term Memory: Active processing (7 ± 2 items capacity).

  - Long-Term Memory: Unlimited storage capacity.

- Explicit Memory: Facts and experiences (processed in the hippocampus).

- Implicit Memory: Skills and conditioned associations (processed in the cerebellum).

#### Module 29: Memory Retrieval

- Retrieval Cues: Associations that help recall information.

- Forgetting: Caused by encoding failure, storage decay, or retrieval failure.

- Interference:

  - Proactive Interference: Old information interferes with new learning.

  - Retroactive Interference: New learning interferes with old memories.

- Amnesia: Retrograde (loss of old memories) vs. anterograde (inability to form new memories).

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### Study Tips:

1. Create Flashcards: Use them for key terms and theories.

2. Practice Diagrams: For processes like the sleep cycle or memory stages.

3. Apply Examples: Relate theories to everyday experiences.

4. Self-Quiz: Use end-of-module practice questions if available.

5. Group Study: Discuss concepts like classical conditioning or observational learning with peers for better understanding. 

Good luck with your studies! Let me know if you need deeper dives into any module! 🚀