Midterm Exam Review Notes

Test Map Mid Term

Structurol Unit Organization

  • Chemical Level:

    • Atoms are the basic units of matter.
    • Atoms combine to form molecules.

  • Organization of Similar Cells:

    • Cells aggregate to form tissues.

  • Organization of Different Tissues:

    • Different tissues group together to form organs.

  • Kinds of Organs:

    • Organs are made up of at least two different types of tissues.
Levels of Classification of an Organism

  1. Atom:

    • Definition: The smallest unit of an element that retains the properties of that element.
    • Example: Hydrogen atom.

  2. Cell:

    • Definition: The basic structural and functional unit of living organisms.
    • Example: Muscle cell.

  3. Tissue:

    • Definition: A group of cells that work together to perform a specific function.
    • Example: Epithelial tissue.

  4. Organ:

    • Definition: A collection of tissues that perform a specific function.
    • Example: Heart.

  5. Organ System:

    • Definition: A group of organs that work together to carry out a particular function.
    • Example: Digestive system.

  6. Organism:

    • Definition: A living entity made up of various organ systems.
    • Example: Human being.

Pathology

  • Definition: The study of disease, including its causes, effects, and development.

Anatomical Positions of the Body (pg 19)

  • Anterior:

    • Definition: Front of the body.

  • Distal:

    • Definition: Farthest away from the point of attachment.

  • Inferior:

    • Definition: Below another structure.

  • Medial:

    • Definition: Toward the middle of the body.

  • Right:

    • Definition: Right side of the body.

  • Left:

    • Definition: Left side of the body.

  • Lateral:

    • Definition: Toward the sides of the body.

  • Superior:

    • Definition: Above another structure.

Body Cavities (pg 19)

  • Dorsal Cavity:

    • Contains the cranial cavity (brain) and spinal cavity (spinal cord).

  • Ventral Cavity:

    • Contains thoracic cavity (heart and lungs) and abdominopelvic cavity (digestive organs).

Organs in the Abdominopelvic Quadrants

  • Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ):

    • Contains liver, gallbladder, right kidney, etc.

  • Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ):

    • Contains appendix, right ovary, small intestine.

  • Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ):

    • Contains stomach, spleen, left kidney.

  • Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ):

    • Contains left ovary, descending colon.

Diaphragm

  • Structure: Muscular sheet separating thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.

Structure of an Atom (pg 37)

  • Proton:

    • Definition: Positively charged particle located in the nucleus of an atom.

  • Neutron:

    • Definition: Neutral particle located in the nucleus.

  • Electron:

    • Definition: Negatively charged particle located in orbitals around the nucleus.
Electron Location
  • Electrons are found on the outside of an atom.

Triglyceride (pg 38)

  • Definition: A type of lipid formed by a glycerol molecule joined to three fatty acid chains.

Nucleotide - Functional Unit of DNA (pg 39)

  • Definition: The basic structural unit of DNA, composed of three components:
    1. Phosphate Group: The backbone of the DNA molecule.
    2. Deoxyribose Sugar: A five-carbon sugar molecule.
    3. Nitrogen Base: Four types (adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine).

Parts of a Cell (pg 65-66)

Three Main Parts

  1. Plasma Membrane:

    • Surrounds the cell, providing structure and protection.

  2. Nucleus:

    • Contains genetic material and controls cell functions.

  3. Cytoplasm:

    • Gel-like substance where organelles reside.
Organelles and Their Functions (pg 65)

  • Ribosomes:

    • Function: Protein factories of the cell.

  • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):

    • Function: Transport system within the cell. Comes in two forms:
    • Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes; synthesizes proteins.
    • Smooth ER: Lacks ribosomes; synthesizes lipids.

  • Golgi Apparatus:

    • Function: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for secretion.

  • Mitochondria:

    • Function: Powerhouse of the cell, generates ATP (energy).

  • Lysosomes:

    • Function: Contains digestive enzymes for breaking down waste.

  • Centrosome:

    • Function: Organizes microtubules; plays a role in cell division.

Nervous Tissue Function and Structure (pg 89)

  • Neurons:
    • Cell extensions include:
    • Axon: Carries impulses away from the cell.
    • Dendrite: Carries impulses toward the cell.

Connective Tissue (pg 89)

  • Most abundant tissue in the body that connects, supports, and anchors various body parts.
Classification of Epithelial Tissue (pg 88)

  • Definition: Covers and lines body cavities.

  • Types:

    • Classified by shape:
    • Squamous: Flat cells.
    • Cuboidal: Cube-shaped cells.
    • Columnar: Column-like cells.
    • Transitional: Can change shape.

  • Transitional Epithelium Location:

    • Found in organs that need stretching, such as the bladder.
Different Types of Cartilage (pg 81)
  1. Hyaline Cartilage:
    • Smooth, covers the ends of bones.
  2. Fibrocartilage:
    • Tough, provides support and absorbs shock.
  3. Elastic Cartilage:
    • Contains elastin for flexibility.

Goblet Cells Function (pg 76)

  • Definition: Specialized epithelial cells that produce mucus.
  • Function: Mucus secretion aids in absorption and protection.

Integumentary System Function (pg 109)

  • Main Function: Protection of internal tissues and organs.

Muscle Tissue

Types of Muscle Tissue

  1. Skeletal Muscle:
    • Striated muscle attached to bones; voluntary.
  2. Cardiac Muscle:
    • Striated muscle found in the heart; involuntary.
  3. Smooth Muscle:
    • Non-striated muscle found in walls of organs; involuntary.
Tendon Structure
  • Definition: Connects muscle to bone.

Endocrine vs. Exocrine Glands

  • Exocrine Glands:
    • Secret products into ducts (e.g., sweat glands).
  • Endocrine Glands:
    • Secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream (e.g., thyroid gland).

Respiratory System Function (pg 110)

  • Gas Exchange: Takes place in the alveoli.
  • Function: Regulation of acid-base balance, waste, and gas exchange.

Digestive Tract

Primary vs. Accessory Organs (pg 110)
  • Primary Organs: Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and intestines.
  • Accessory Organs: Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas.

Lymphatic System Structures (pg 110)

  • Components: Lymph nodes, tonsils, thymus, spleen.
  • Functions: Assists with digestion, supports immunity, and transports lymph.
Signs vs. Symptoms (pg 140)
  • Sign: Objective evidence of disease (e.g., rash).
  • Symptom: Subjective feeling reported by the patient (e.g., pain).
  • Syndrome: A group of signs and symptoms that occur together.

Disease Classifications

Epidemic vs. Endemic vs. Pandemic (pg 140)
  • Epidemic: A disease that affects many people in a specific region.
  • Endemic: Disease is consistently present in a population.
  • Pandemic: A disease that spreads over a large geographical area.

Tumor Classification (pg 142)

  • Scientific Name: Neoplasms.
  • Risk Factors for Cancer:
    • Genetics, exposure to carcinogens, age, environment, and certain viruses.
Prion-Related Diseases (pg 141)
  • Example: Mad Cow Disease.
Mechanism of Disease Transmission (pg 126-127)
  1. Environmental Contact: Can be reduced through sanitation and education.
  2. Person to Person: Can be prevented by improved hygiene practices.
  3. Opportunistic Invasion: Occurs when pathogens exploit a weakened host.
Fungal Diseases (pg 124, see table 6-3)
  • Examples: Yeasts can infect urinary and reproductive tracts.
  • Prevention: Soft sanitation and wound care.

Inflammation Types (pg 134-137)

  • Local Inflammation: Confined to a specific area of the body.
  • Systemic Inflammation: Affects the entire body; characterized by increased blood supply to inflamed area, leading to signs like redness and warmth.
Tumor Classifications (pg 142)
  • Staging: Classifying tumors based on size and extent of the disease.

Cancer Detection Methods (pg 142)

  • Methods:
    1. Self-examination
    2. Diagnostic imaging
    3. Biopsy
    4. Blood tests

Severity of Burns (pg 162)

  • Dependence on Factors: Treatment and recovery depend on the total area involved and the severity (depth) of the burn.
Burn Classifications
  1. 1st Degree: Affects the surface layer (epidermis).
  2. 2nd Degree: Partial thickness, affects the epidermis and portions of the dermis.
  3. 3rd Degree: Full thickness, destroys both the epidermis and dermis.
  4. 4th Degree: Extends into underlying fat, muscle, or bone.

Rules of Nines

  • Purpose: Used for calculating the total body surface area affected by burns by dividing the body into sections, assigning a percentage to each part.

Body Membranes Classification (pg 171)

  • Main Epithelial Membranes:

    1. Cutaneous Membrane: The skin.
    2. Serous Membrane: Line body cavities and organs.
    3. Mucous Membrane: Line surfaces that are open to the exterior (e.g., respiratory, digestive tract).

  • Other Name for Cutaneous Membrane: The skin.