AP Euro Chapter 21

Here are detailed definitions for all 44 terms:

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Revolutions and Political Movements

1. 1848 "June Days" – A workers’ uprising in Paris (June 23–26, 1848) triggered by the closure of national workshops. The revolt was violently crushed by the army, marking the end of socialist hopes in the Second Republic.

2. "King of the French people" – A title used by Louis Philippe I (r. 1830–1848) to emphasize that his rule was based on the people’s will rather than divine right, distinguishing his reign from that of traditional monarchs.

3. Francis Joseph & Nicholas I’s suppression of Hungary (1849) – After becoming emperor of Austria in 1848, Francis Joseph sought to crush the Hungarian Revolution. Nicholas I of Russia sent 130,000 troops in June 1849, leading to the defeat of Hungarian forces.

4. Attempts to unite the Germans – The Frankfurt Parliament (1848–1849) tried to unify Germany as a liberal national state under Prussian leadership. However, Prussian King Frederick William IV rejected the offer, and the attempt failed.

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Social Classes and Economic Policies

5. Bourgeoisie – The middle class, including wealthy merchants, industrialists, and professionals. They supported capitalism, liberalism, and economic expansion but were often opposed by both aristocrats and the working class.

6. Proletariat – The working class, especially industrial laborers who owned no property. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels saw them as the revolutionary class destined to overthrow capitalism.

7. Proper Social Organization (Marxist Theory) – Marx and Engels argued that society should be based on class struggle, where the proletariat would overthrow the bourgeoisie and establish a classless, communist society.

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Conservatism and Reactionary Politics

8. Congress of Vienna (1815) – A conference held after Napoleon’s defeat, where European powers, led by Metternich, sought to restore monarchies and maintain a balance of power to prevent future revolutions.

9. Metternich & Conservatism – Klemens von Metternich (1773–1859), Austria’s foreign minister, was a leading conservative who worked to suppress nationalism, liberalism, and revolutionary movements in Europe.

10. Carlsbad Decrees (1819) – Issued by Metternich to crack down on liberal and nationalist movements in the German Confederation, censoring the press and restricting universities.

11. Re-establish the Old Order – After Napoleon’s fall, conservatives aimed to restore absolute monarchies, repress liberal reforms, and strengthen aristocratic control.

12. Repression of Liberal and Revolutionary Movements – European monarchies used censorship, secret police, and military force to crush demands for democracy and nationalism, as seen in the Carlsbad Decrees and the suppression of the 1848 Revolutions.

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France and the Bourbon Monarchy

13. Bourbon Dynasty – The French royal family restored to power after Napoleon’s defeat. Louis XVIII (r. 1814–1824) and Charles X (r. 1824–1830) ruled, but Charles X’s reactionary policies led to his overthrow.

14. Charles X (r. 1824–1830) – The last Bourbon king of France, he sought to restore absolute monarchy, which led to the July Revolution of 1830 and his abdication.

15. Louis XVIII’s Charter of 1814 – A constitution that allowed a limited monarchy and a two-house legislature but maintained aristocratic privileges. It was a compromise between absolutism and liberalism.

16. Louis Philippe’s "Bourgeois Monarchy" – The July Monarchy (1830–1848) favored the wealthy middle class, ignored workers' demands, and was eventually overthrown in the 1848 Revolution.

17. France’s Second Republic (1848–1852) – Established after Louis Philippe’s abdication, it introduced universal male suffrage and social reforms but was taken over by Louis Napoleon, who later declared himself Emperor.

18. Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III) – Nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, elected President in 1848. In 1851, he staged a coup and declared himself Emperor, founding the Second Empire.

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Great Britain and Social Reforms

19. Chartist Movement (1838–1850s) – A working-class movement in Britain demanding universal male suffrage, secret ballots, and electoral reform. Though initially unsuccessful, its ideas influenced later reforms.

20. Corn Laws (1815–1846) – British tariffs on imported grain that benefited landowners but raised food prices for workers. Their repeal in 1846 marked a victory for free trade.

21. Reform Bill of 1832 – Expanded voting rights to middle-class men and reduced corruption but still excluded most workers. It marked the beginning of Britain’s shift toward democracy.

22. Ten Hours Act (1847) – A British law that limited women and children to a ten-hour workday, a step toward improved labor conditions.

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Cultural and Artistic Movements

23. Romantic Movement – A cultural movement emphasizing emotion, nature, individualism, and rebellion against Enlightenment rationalism.

24. Romanticism – A broader artistic and intellectual movement focusing on deep emotion, heroism, and national identity in literature, art, and music.

25. Eugène Delacroix – A leading Romantic painter, known for Liberty Leading the People (1830), which depicted revolutionary ideals.

26. Joseph M. W. Turner – A British Romantic painter, famous for his dramatic landscapes and seascapes, capturing the power of nature.

27. Hunchback of Notre Dame (1831) – A novel by Victor Hugo that romanticized the Gothic era and addressed themes of social injustice and heroism.

28. Grimm Brothers – German scholars who collected and published fairy tales, helping to preserve German cultural heritage and nationalism.

29. Ludwig van Beethoven – A German composer who transitioned from Classical to Romantic music, known for symphonies that expressed emotion and struggle.

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Nationalism and Revolutions

30. Great Famine (1845–1851) – A devastating potato blight in Ireland that led to mass starvation, disease, and emigration, intensifying Irish resentment toward British rule.

31. Greece Independent in 1830 – Greece gained independence from the Ottoman Empire with help from Britain, France, and Russia, inspired by Romantic nationalism.

32. Habsburg Emperor Ferdinand I (r. 1835–1848) – Under pressure from the 1848 revolutions, he promised reforms and a liberal constitution before abdicating in favor of Francis Joseph.

33. National Workshops (France, 1848) – A government program providing jobs for unemployed workers, which was later abolished, triggering the June Days Uprising.

34. Dramatic (Romanticism) – Romanticism sought to evoke strong emotions through dramatic storytelling, music, and art.

35. Socialist – Advocates for collective or government control of industry and wealth to reduce inequality. Early socialists pushed for workers' rights and economic reforms.

36. Tory – A conservative political party in Britain that supported monarchy, aristocracy, and resistance to democratic reforms.

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This provides detailed explanations for all 44 terms. Let me know if you need anything refined or expanded!