Introductory Chapter: The Science of Social Facts

Learning Objective 1: Understanding Social Facts

Define and identify examples of a social fact

Definition:

• Social Facts: These are the ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that exist outside the individual but exert control over them. They are norms, values, and structures that exist independently of any one person but shape the behavior and beliefs of people in society.

Examples:

• Laws: These are social facts because they exist outside of individuals but influence behavior.
• Religious Beliefs: These are shared by a community and shape individual actions and thoughts.
• Cultural Norms: Things like shaking hands when meeting someone, which people follow without thinking about it.

Learning Objective 2: Sociological Methods and Data

Explain how sociologists develop research questions

• Sociologists develop research questions by identifying a topic of interest, reviewing existing literature to see what has already been studied, and finding gaps or new angles to explore. They consider the relevance and significance of the question to society.

Identify the differences between quantitative and qualitative data

• Quantitative Data: This is numerical data that can be measured and counted, like surveys, statistics, and experiments. It helps in finding patterns and averages.
• Qualitative Data: This is descriptive data that explores attitudes, behaviors, and experiences through interviews, focus groups, and observations. It provides deeper insights into social processes.

Explain how W.E.B. Du Bois used quantitative data to help identify patterns in society

• W.E.B. Du Bois: He used statistics and other quantitative methods to study and highlight issues of racial inequality. His work, "The Philadelphia Negro," used surveys and census data to show the living conditions of African Americans and to challenge racist assumptions.

Explain what Harriet Martineau means by the term "sociological sympathy"

• Sociological Sympathy: Harriet Martineau used this term to describe the understanding and empathy sociologists should have towards the people they study. It involves seeing the world from others' perspectives to truly understand their experiences and conditions.

Explain how sociologists use data to answer research questions

• Sociologists collect data through methods like surveys, interviews, and observations. They analyze this data to identify patterns, test hypotheses, and draw conclusions about social behaviors and structures.

Define the term "standpoint" and explain why it is important to understanding the world sociologically

• Standpoint: This refers to the perspective from which someone views the world, shaped by their social position and experiences. Understanding different standpoints is important because it highlights how social location (like race, gender, class) affects people's experiences and viewpoints.

Explain the term public sociology. Provide an example of a sociologist who engaged in this type of sociology

• Public Sociology: This involves bringing sociological insights to the public to inform and engage with social issues. An example is Jane Addams, who used her sociological knowledge to address social issues and advocate for social reform through her work at Hull House.

Define and explain what C. Wright Mills means by the term "the sociological imagination"

• Sociological Imagination: This term, coined by C. Wright Mills, refers to the ability to see the connection between personal experiences and larger social structures. It involves understanding how individual lives are influenced by historical and social contexts.

Learning Objective 3: History and Development of Sociology

Identify and explain early European ideas that have contributed to the development of sociological thinking

• August Comte: Known as the father of sociology, he introduced the idea of studying society scientifically.
• Harriet Martineau: She translated Comte’s work into English and emphasized the importance of studying all aspects of society, including women’s roles.
• Karl Marx: He focused on class struggle and the effects of capitalism on society.
• Emile Durkheim: He introduced the concept of social facts and studied how societies maintain order.
• Max Weber: He studied the effects of rationalization and the role of ideas and beliefs in shaping society.
• Marianne Weber: She focused on the sociology of women and family life.

Identify and explain early American ideas that have contributed to the development of sociological thinking

• Ida Wells-Barnett: She used sociological methods to study and fight against lynching and racial injustice.
• Charlotte Perkins-Gilman: She wrote about the social structures that oppress women.
• Anna Julia Cooper: She emphasized the importance of race and gender in understanding social inequality.
• Jane Addams: She used sociology to advocate for social reform and helped establish social work as a profession.
• W.E.B. Du Bois: He studied race and used both qualitative and quantitative methods to highlight racial inequalities.
• Herbert Blumer: He developed the theory of symbolic interactionism, focusing on how people interact and create meaning.

Identify and explain the three theoretical paradigms (schools of thought) that emerged in the early to mid-twentieth century

1. Structural Functionalism: Focuses on how the parts of society work together to maintain stability and order.
2. Conflict Theory: Emphasizes the role of power and inequality in shaping society, focusing on conflicts between different groups.
3. Symbolic Interactionism: Studies how people create and interpret meanings through social interactions.

Explain the history and significance of standpoint theory

• Standpoint Theory: This theory, developed by feminist scholars, argues that people's social positions (like gender, race, class) affect their perspectives and knowledge. It highlights the importance of considering marginalized viewpoints to gain a fuller understanding of society.

Sociology

Sociology is like looking at how people live together, work together, and play together.

Sociological Sympathy

This means feeling what someone else feels, like when your friend is sad and you feel sad too.

Sociological Imagination

It's like using your imagination to understand how your own life is connected to the world around you.

Social Facts

These are things everyone in a group follows, like rules at school or the way families celebrate holidays.

Research Ethics

These are like the rules for playing a game fairly, but for people who study how others live and act.

Structural Functionalism

This is like thinking about how all the parts of a toy work together to make it fun to play with.

Data

Data is like the information you gather when you count your toys or write down your favorite colors.

Sociological Theory

These are ideas that help us understand why people do what they do, like thinking about why we share toys.

Conflict Theory

This is like when kids fight over a toy, and it helps us understand why there are arguments and how to share better.

Sociological Research Questions

These are the questions we ask to learn more about how people live and play together, like asking why everyone loves ice cream.

Social Patterns

These are things people do over and over, like bedtime routines or playing certain games at recess.

Symbolic Interactionism

This is like when a smile means you're happy or a frown means you're sad. It's about what things mean to us.

Qualitative Research Methods

This is like drawing pictures or telling stories to show how you feel or what you think about something.

Standpoints

This is like seeing things from different places, like looking out from a treehouse or from the ground.

Standpoint Theory

This idea says that people understand things differently based on where they are and what they've experienced, like how tall kids and short kids see things differently.

Quantitative Research Methods

This is like counting how many apples you have or measuring how tall you are.

Public Sociology

This is about sharing what we learn with everyone, like telling your friends about a new game you learned.

Unit B

Learning Objective 1: Elements of Doing Sociological Research

Define the following terms:

1. Empirical Inquiry: This is using evidence from direct observation or experience to investigate and understand social phenomena.
2. Research Questions: These are specific inquiries that guide sociological investigations, aiming to explore relationships, understand behaviors, or explain social phenomena.
3. Data: This refers to information or evidence collected through research methods such as surveys, interviews, or observations.
4. Sociological Theory: This is a set of ideas and concepts that explain social phenomena. It provides frameworks for understanding how societies work.
5. Sociological Research Methods: These are systematic approaches used by sociologists to collect and analyze data, such as surveys, experiments, ethnography, etc.

Explain the difference between qualitative and quantitative research methods:

• Qualitative Research Methods: These focus on exploring and understanding attitudes, behaviors, and experiences through methods like interviews, focus groups, and observations. They provide rich, descriptive data.
• Quantitative Research Methods: These involve collecting numerical data to quantify relationships and test hypotheses through methods like surveys, experiments, and statistical analysis. They emphasize measurement and statistical validity.

Define and provide an example of a positive and negative correlation. Explain the difference between correlation and causation. Explain and provide an example of a spurious relationship:

• Positive Correlation: When two variables change in the same direction, such as higher income being positively correlated with better health outcomes.
• Negative Correlation: When two variables change in opposite directions, like higher education levels being negatively correlated with unemployment rates.
• Correlation vs. Causation: Correlation indicates a relationship between variables but does not imply causation. For example, there's a correlation between ice cream sales and drowning deaths (both increase in summer), but ice cream doesn't cause drownings.
• Spurious Relationship: This is when two variables appear to be related, but their relationship is actually explained by a third variable. For instance, there's a correlation between sunglasses sales and ice cream sales (both increase in summer), but it's due to warm weather, not a direct link between sunglasses and ice cream.

Learning Objective 2: Why There Are So Many Methods

Explain the strengths and weaknesses of using:

• Surveys: Strengths include collecting data from large samples quickly; weaknesses include limited depth and possible response bias.
• In-depth Interviews: Strengths include detailed insights into attitudes and experiences; weaknesses include time-consuming and potential interviewer bias.
• Ethnography: Strengths include immersion in a culture for deep understanding; weaknesses include time-intensive and subjectivity in interpretation.
• Field Experiments: Strengths include studying behavior in real-world settings; weaknesses include limited control over variables.
• Content Analysis: Strengths include analyzing large amounts of text or media systematically; weaknesses include interpretation subjectivity.

Provide examples of studies using multiple methods:

• A study on youth culture might combine surveys to understand broad attitudes with ethnography to explore daily interactions in specific communities, providing a comprehensive view.

Define the term generalizability and explain its significance to survey research:

• Generalizability: This refers to the extent to which findings from a sample can be applied to a larger population. In survey research, a representative sample ensures findings can be generalized to the broader population, enhancing the study's validity and reliability.

Learning Objective 3: Steps Used to Pursue and Publish Social Research

Identify and describe the ten steps of sociological research:

1. Identify a research question
2. Review existing literature
3. Develop a research design
4. Collect data
5. Analyze data
6. Interpret findings
7. Draw conclusions
8. Write research report
9. Submit for publication
10. Revise based on feedback

Define the term "academic literature":

• Academic Literature: This refers to published research and scholarly articles in academic journals that contribute to knowledge in a particular field.

Explain the peer review process:

• Peer Review: This is a process where experts in the field review a research paper before publication to ensure its quality, validity, and contribution to knowledge.

What does the term operationalization mean?

• Operationalization: This is defining variables in a way that allows them to be measured and manipulated in research.

What is informed consent? Why is it important to obtain informed consent?

• Informed Consent: This is permission granted by participants after being informed about the risks and benefits of a study. It ensures ethical treatment of participants and respects their autonomy.

What is confidentiality? When is it not possible to maintain confidentiality?

• Confidentiality: This is protecting participants' identities and data. It may not be possible to maintain confidentiality if required by law (e.g., reporting child abuse).

Why are sociologists extra vigilant about protecting vulnerable populations? Provide an example.

• Sociologists protect vulnerable populations (e.g., children, minorities) to prevent harm and ensure ethical research. For example, research involving minors requires parental consent and careful consideration of potential risks.

Provide examples of some of the professional ethics sociologists must abide by:

• Ethics include ensuring participant confidentiality, avoiding harm, disclosing conflicts of interest, and obtaining informed consent.

What are Institutional Review Boards and what role do they play in the research process?

• Institutional Review Boards (IRBs): These are committees that review research proposals to ensure ethical standards are met, particularly concerning participant welfare and rights.

Learning Objective 4: How Sociologists Build and Evaluate Social Theory

What are sociologists' primary goals? What is theory and why is it such an abstract concept?

• Sociologists aim to explain social phenomena, understand patterns, and predict behaviors. Theory is a set of interconnected ideas that explain why things happen in society. It's abstract because it deals with complex social processes and relationships.

How do sociologists test theories? How do theories evolve?

• Sociologists test theories by collecting and analyzing data to see if predictions match real-world outcomes. Theories evolve through new research findings, debates, and revisions based on empirical evidence.

Empirical Inquiry

This is like looking closely at the world to see how things really work, like watching ants to see where they go.

Operationalization

This is when you take a big idea and figure out how to measure it, like deciding to count how many times a friend smiles to see if they're happy.

Academic Literature

These are the books and papers that people write to share what they learn, like storybooks but for grown-ups who study things.

Research Questions

These are the questions we ask to find out more about the world, like "Why is the sky blue?"

Human Subjects Research

This is when we study people to learn about how they live, think, or feel, like asking friends about their favorite games.

Research Ethics

These are the rules that help us study things in a fair and kind way, like playing nicely and sharing with others.

Data

Data is the information we collect to understand something better, like counting how many toys you have.

Correlation

This is when two things happen together, like when it rains and you see more puddles.

Peer Review

This is when other people check your work to make sure it's good, like when a teacher looks at your drawing and says "Good job!"

Sociological Theory

These are big ideas that help us understand why people do what they do, like guessing why everyone likes ice cream.

Causation

This is when one thing makes another thing happen, like when you push a ball and it rolls.

Informed Consent

This is when you ask someone if it's okay to study them and they say yes, like asking a friend if you can play with their toy.

Sociological Research Methods

These are the ways we study how people live and act, like watching how friends play or asking them questions.

Spurious

This is when it looks like two things are related, but they really aren't, like thinking wearing a red shirt makes you run faster.

Confidentiality

This means keeping someone's information secret and safe, like not telling anyone your friend's secret.

Qualitative Research Methods

These are ways to study things with words and pictures, like telling a story or drawing a picture about your day.

Generalizable

This means what we learn from one group can help us understand other groups too, like if all kids love ice cream, maybe all kids in another place do too.

Vulnerable Populations

These are groups of people who need extra care and protection, like little kids or older people.

Quantitative Research Methods

These are ways to study things with numbers, like counting how many apples are in a basket.

Academic Literature

These are the books and papers that people write to share what they learn, like storybooks but for grown-ups who study things.

Institutional Review Board

This is a group of people who make sure studies are done safely and fairly, like a group of teachers making sure everyone plays nicely.

Negative Correlation

This is when one thing goes up and another thing goes down, like when more rain means fewer kids at the playground.

Positive Correlation

This is when two things go up or down together, like when more sunshine means more kids playing outside.

Research Ethics

These are the rules that help us study things in a fair and kind way, like playing nicely and sharing with others.

Unit 1

Learning Objective 1: Understanding Self and Social Interaction

Distinguish between the “I” and the “me,” as developed by George Herbert Mead, and demonstrate how people engage in this “dual thinking” about themselves:

• George Herbert Mead's Theory:
  • "I": This is the spontaneous, creative, and impulsive part of the self that responds to situations.
  • "Me": This is the socially aware and reflective part of the self, shaped by interactions with others and societal norms.
  • Dual Thinking: Individuals engage in dual thinking by balancing immediate responses (I) with social expectations and norms (me) in their actions and interactions.

According to George H. Mead, how do the "I" and the "me" help us understand the dual nature of the self?

• The "I" and the "me" framework explains how individuals navigate between spontaneous personal impulses (I) and socially learned roles and expectations (me), illustrating the dynamic interaction between individual agency and social structure in shaping the self.

Explain the Theory of Mind and how individuals can see themselves at different stages of their lives:

• Theory of Mind: This is the ability to understand and attribute mental states—beliefs, intents, desires—to oneself and others, which develops in stages from childhood to adulthood.
• Individuals can see themselves at different stages by reflecting on their past experiences and anticipating future roles and identities through the perspective-taking ability facilitated by Theory of Mind.

Explain how more recent science on mirror neurons helps us understand how our sense of self is connected to others:

• Mirror Neurons: These neurons activate both when an individual performs an action and when they observe the same action performed by another, facilitating empathy, imitation, and understanding.
• Mirror neurons suggest that our sense of self is linked to others through shared experiences and empathetic responses, highlighting the neural basis for social cognition and connection.

Learning Objective 2: Understanding the Looking-Glass Self and Experimental Research

Summarize Charles Horton Cooley’s theory of the looking-glass self and the research that has been done on the looking-glass self:

• Charles Horton Cooley's Theory: This theory posits that individuals develop their self-concepts through their perceptions of how others perceive them. This involves imagining how one appears to others, interpreting their reactions, and developing a self-concept based on these interactions.

Describe the In-depth Interview and explain the coding process: Describe sociologist Morgan Johnstonbaugh's research findings from interviewing people on the self:

• In-depth Interview: This method involves open-ended questions to explore individuals' experiences and perspectives in depth.
• Coding Process: In qualitative research, coding involves categorizing and analyzing interview responses to identify themes or patterns.
• Example Research Findings: Sociologist Morgan Johnstonbaugh found that individuals construct their self-concepts based on feedback from significant others, which influences their identities and behaviors.

Do studies show that our self-concepts have more in common with what other people think of us or what others think of us?

• Studies indicate that individuals' self-concepts are often influenced by perceptions of how others view them, aligning closely with others' opinions and expectations, as suggested by the looking-glass self-theory.

How might the experience of a "hermit" like Christopher Knight be explained about the Looking Glass self?

• Christopher Knight's experience as a hermit, disconnected from society, could reflect a lack of external feedback that typically shapes self-concepts through social interactions and mirrors the looking-glass self theory. His self-concept may develop more independently, influenced by personal reflections rather than external perceptions.

Explain how the looking-glass self can be a self-fulfilling prophecy:

• The looking-glass self can act as a self-fulfilling prophecy when individuals internalize others' perceptions and expectations, leading them to behave in ways consistent with these beliefs. This reinforces the initial perceptions and impacts their self-concept and behavior over time.

Explain the process of experimental research in the laboratory:

• Experimental Research: This involves controlled investigations in a laboratory setting where variables are manipulated to test hypotheses and establish cause-and-effect relationships.

What is a variable? Explain the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable:

• Variable: This is a factor or characteristic that can vary or change in an experiment.
• Independent Variable: This is the variable manipulated or controlled by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable.
• Dependent Variable: This is the variable measured or observed to determine the effect of the independent variable.

Distinguish the control group and the experimental group:

• Control Group: This is the group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or intervention being studied, serving as a baseline for comparison.
• Experimental Group: This is the group that receives the treatment or intervention being studied to evaluate its effects.

How can lab experiments help scientists make causal claims?

• Lab experiments allow researchers to control variables, manipulate conditions, and isolate factors to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables, providing evidence for causal claims.

Explain the experiment using cologne that scientists used to demonstrate the self-fulfilling prophecy:

• In an experiment, researchers might tell participants they are wearing a cologne that makes them more attractive. Participants' behavior and others' reactions are then observed, showing how believing in a false attribute (the cologne) can lead to changes in behavior and social interactions, illustrating the self-fulfilling prophecy.

Learning Objective 3: Narrative and Sense of Self

Evaluate the critical role that narrative plays in our sense of self:

• Narratives shape our understanding of who we are by organizing and interpreting our experiences into coherent stories that define our identities and link our past, present, and future selves.

How can memory affect our sense of self?

• Memory influences our sense of self by selectively recalling experiences that reinforce our self-concepts, shaping how we perceive and interpret our identities over time.

What is a self-narrative?

• A self-narrative is a personal story or account that individuals construct to make sense of their lives, integrating events, relationships, and values into a coherent identity.

Explain how the self-narrative relates to fact and fiction about our sense of self:

• Self-narratives blend factual events with subjective interpretations and emotions, shaping our identities through a mix of objective truths and personal perspectives on our experiences.

Learning Objective 4: The Self as a Social Fact

Explain how the self is a social fact:

• The self is shaped by social interactions, cultural norms, and collective beliefs, making it a product of society rather than solely an individual construction.

Explain how our precise nature of consciousness is a product of human interaction:

• Consciousness and self-awareness develop through social interactions, language acquisition, and shared meanings within cultures, illustrating how our understanding of self is socially constructed and shaped by societal norms and values.

The "I" and the "Me"

The "I" is like the part of you that makes choices and does things, like deciding to play with a toy. The "Me" is like the part of you that thinks about what other people might think of you, like wondering if your friend likes your toy.

Self Fulfilling Prophecy

This is when you believe something will happen, and then it happens because you believed it, like thinking you'll win a race and then running really fast because you believe you can win.

Theory of Mind

This is understanding that other people have thoughts and feelings different from yours, like knowing your friend might feel sad even if you feel happy.

Laboratory Experiment

This is like doing a special test in a room where everything is controlled, like a science experiment where you mix different colors to see what happens.

Mirror Neurons

These are special brain cells that help you feel what someone else is feeling, like when you see someone smile and it makes you feel happy too.

Variable

This is something that can change, like the color of your clothes or the number of toys you have.

Looking Glass Self

This is like seeing yourself through other people's eyes, like thinking you are funny because your friends laugh at your jokes.

Experimental Group

This is the group in an experiment that gets the special treatment, like trying a new kind of candy to see if it tastes good.

In-depth Interviews

These are long talks where someone asks a lot of questions to learn about another person, like having a big chat with your grandparent to hear about their life.

Control Group

This is the group in an experiment that doesn't get the special treatment, like eating regular candy while the experimental group tries the new candy.

Coding

This is putting information into categories to understand it better, like sorting your toys into different boxes.

Causal Claims

This is saying that one thing makes another thing happen, like saying eating vegetables makes you strong.

Unit 2

Learning Objective 1: Understanding Social Constructs and Social Structures

Explain the concept of a social construct:

• Social Construct: This refers to a concept or phenomenon that is created and maintained by society, rather than being inherently natural or universally true. Examples include gender roles, race, money, and citizenship.

Define and give examples of a social construct:

• Examples:
  • Gender: Socially constructed roles, behaviors, and identities associated with being male or female.
  • Race: Socially defined categories based on physical characteristics, ancestry, or historical context.
  • Money: A social construct representing value and exchange, not inherently valuable itself.

Explain how social constructs emerge out of social construction:

• Social Construction: This process involves individuals and groups collectively agreeing on the meaning and significance of ideas or phenomena, reinforcing them through social interactions and institutions.

Describe and give examples of:

• Signifiers: Symbols or signs that represent a concept, such as a wedding ring symbolizing marriage.
• Categories: Groups or classifications used to organize people or things, like age categories or social classes.
• Binaries: Opposing pairs that structure meaning, such as male/female or good/evil.
• Associations: Connections made between concepts or ideas, like associating wealth with success.
• Sequences: Ordered patterns or sequences of events, like the stages of life or educational progression.
• Hierarchies: Systems of ranking or organizing based on importance or power, such as social hierarchies or organizational structures.

Explain how social structures emerge out of the universe of ideas and relationships:

• Social Structures: These are enduring patterns of social organization and relationships that shape and constrain human behavior and interactions. They emerge from shared ideas, norms, and relationships within a society.

Learning Objective 2: Understanding Culture and Socialization

Define culture and explain how it evolves across generations:

• Culture: This encompasses shared beliefs, values, practices, and behaviors of a society or group. It evolves through processes of transmission, adaptation, and innovation across generations.

Define culture and identify the distinctions between:

• Cultural Cognitions: Mental frameworks and beliefs within a culture.
• Cultural Practices: Rituals, behaviors, and activities that embody cultural values.
• Cultural Bodies: Physical manifestations and expressions of culture, such as art, architecture, and clothing.

Explain how culture is passed on across generations:

• Culture is transmitted through socialization, education, media, and institutions, where younger generations learn and adopt cultural norms and practices from older generations.

Explain the phenomenon of culture shock and its impact:

• Culture Shock: This is the disorientation and discomfort experienced when encountering unfamiliar cultural norms, values, and behaviors. It can lead to stress, confusion, and adaptation challenges.

Learning Objective 3: Processes of Socialization and Social Networks

Identify the processes by which we are socialized into our cultures:

• Values: Shared beliefs about what is desirable and important in a culture.
• Norms: Social rules and expectations that guide behavior within a culture.

Agents of Socialization:

• Families, Schools, Peers, Religion, Mass Media, Work, Military: These institutions and groups play roles in transmitting cultural values, norms, and behaviors.

Distinguish among:

• Interpersonal Socialization: Direct interactions influencing individual beliefs and behaviors.
• Self-Socialization: Internal processes shaping personal identity and self-concept.

Describe what a subculture is and how it is formed and identified:

• Subculture: A group within a larger culture that shares distinct norms, values, and practices. It forms through common interests, identities, or experiences within a society.

Describe the relationship between social ties and social networks:

• Social Ties: Connections between individuals based on social interactions.
• Social Networks: Structures of relationships and connections between individuals or groups within a society.

Explain the impact of homophily:

• Homophily: The tendency for people to form social connections with others who are similar to them in terms of characteristics such as beliefs, attitudes, or demographics. It reinforces cultural norms and identities within social networks.

Describe how a social network analysis is conducted and used by sociologists:

• Social Network Analysis: This method examines patterns of relationships and interactions between individuals or groups to understand social structures, influences, and behaviors within societies.

Describe the impact of media socialization:

• Media socialization influences cultural values, beliefs, and behaviors through mass communication channels like television, internet, and social media, shaping public opinion and societal norms.

Describe how culture is embodied, including:

• Cultured Physiques: Physical appearances and body norms influenced by cultural ideals.
• Cultured Capacities: Skills, knowledge, and abilities valued within a culture.
• Cultural Conditioning: The process by which individuals internalize and conform to cultural norms and expectations.

Explain how biosocial research methods are used in sociology:

• Biosocial research methods integrate biological and social factors to study human behavior and social phenomena, examining how genetics, physiology, and environment interact to shape individual and group outcomes.

Learning Objective 4: Culture in Conflict and Change

Analyze how culture is used in times of conflict and change to justify one's own beliefs and behaviors:

Explain the cultural as value thesis and the cultural as rationale thesis:

• Cultural as Value Thesis: This perspective views cultural beliefs and practices as reflecting shared values and ideals within a society, guiding behaviors and social norms.
• Cultural as Rationale Thesis: This perspective sees cultural beliefs and practices as providing explanations or justifications for behaviors and societal arrangements, rationalizing social structures and inequalities.

Describe both ethnocentrism and cultural relativism and identify which one is necessary in order to study human society:

• Ethnocentrism: The belief in the superiority of one's own culture, judging others based on one's own cultural standards.
• Cultural Relativism: The perspective that cultural beliefs and practices should be understood within their own cultural context, without judging them by external standards.

Explain what the author means by "settled times" and "unsettled times":

• Settled Times: Periods when cultural norms, values, and social structures are stable and accepted within a society.
• Unsettled Times: Periods characterized by cultural upheaval, social change, and challenges to existing norms and beliefs, leading to cultural conflict and adaptation.

Beliefs

Beliefs are ideas that people think are true, like believing in Santa Claus or that eating vegetables is good for you.

Biosocial Research Methods

These are ways to study how our bodies and our social lives work together, like seeing how playing with friends makes you feel happy and healthy.

Cultural Relativism

This is understanding that different people have different ways of living and that all ways are okay, like how some people eat with chopsticks and others use forks.

Culturally Competent

This means knowing and respecting other people's ways of living, like understanding and celebrating different holidays with your friends.

Culturally Conditioned

This means learning to act in certain ways because of the culture you live in, like saying "please" and "thank you" because it's polite.

Culture

Culture is the way a group of people live, including their traditions, music, food, and language, like the games you play and the songs you sing at home.

Cultural Objects

These are things that have special meaning in a culture, like a wedding ring or a national flag.

Cultural Cognitions

These are the ways people in a culture think and understand the world, like knowing that a thumbs-up means "good job."

Cultural Practices

These are the regular activities and behaviors people do in a culture, like celebrating birthdays or having family dinners.

Cultural Bodies

These are ways that our bodies can show our culture, like wearing traditional clothes or dancing in a special way.

Culture Shock

This is feeling surprised or confused when you see a way of living that is very different from your own, like moving to a new country and finding out they eat different foods.

Culture-as-Rationale Thesis

This idea says that people use their culture to explain why they do things, like saying you wear certain clothes because it's a tradition in your culture.

Culture-as-Value Thesis

This idea says that culture shapes what people think is important or valuable, like believing that family is very important because your culture values it.

Cultured Capacities

These are the skills and abilities you learn from your culture, like knowing how to cook traditional meals.

Cultured Physiques

These are the ways that culture can influence how our bodies look or are taken care of, like certain beauty standards or ways of exercising.

Dual Inheritance Theory

This idea says that we learn from both our genes and our culture, like being born with the ability to learn a language and then learning the specific language of your family.

Embodied

This means having and showing certain qualities or traits in your body, like being graceful because you practice ballet.

Ethnocentrism

This is thinking your own culture is the best and others are not as good, like thinking only your way of eating is right and others are wrong.

Homophily

This means people like to be friends with others who are like them, like playing with kids who enjoy the same games as you do.

Interpersonal Socialization

This is learning how to behave by interacting with others, like learning to share because your parents and friends share with you.

Mass Media

These are ways to share information with a lot of people, like TV, newspapers, and the internet.

Media Socialization

This is learning about the world and how to behave from media, like watching cartoons that teach good manners.

Norms

Norms are the usual ways people behave in a group, like lining up to go inside the classroom.

Self-Socialization

This is when you learn how to behave by yourself, like figuring out how to tie your shoes by practicing.

Social Construct

This is an idea that people agree on and accept, like money having value because everyone agrees it does.

Social Construction

This is the process of people creating and agreeing on social constructs, like how people decide together what behaviors are polite.

Social Learning

This is learning how to behave by watching others, like learning to say "thank you" because you see your parents do it.

Social Media

These are online platforms where people share information and connect, like Facebook, Instagram, and TikTok.

Social Network Analysis

This is studying how people are connected to each other, like making a map of all your friends and how they know each other.

Social Networks

These are the groups of people you know and interact with, like your family, friends, and classmates.

Social Ties

These are the connections you have with other people, like being friends with your neighbor or being part of a soccer team.

Socialization

This is the process of learning how to live and behave in your society, like learning the rules of a game at school.

Subcultures

These are smaller groups within a larger culture that have their own unique ways of living, like a club at school that has its own special traditions.

Symbolic Structure

These are the important symbols and meanings in a culture, like a country's flag or a religious symbol.

Values

Values are the important beliefs and ideas that guide how people live, like thinking honesty and kindness are important.

Unit 3

Learning Objective 1: Social Identity Theory and Distinction

Summarize the main tenets of social identity theory and the related concepts of distinction and in-group bias:

• Social Identity Theory: This theory explains how individuals derive their identity from group memberships and social categories. It emphasizes the psychological processes of categorization, identification, and comparison with out-groups.
• Distinction:
  • Purpose of Distinction: It involves creating and maintaining boundaries between groups to reinforce social identities.
  • Positive Distinction: Highlighting differences to assert superiority or uniqueness.
  • Minimal Group Paradigm: Even minimal group distinctions can lead to in-group bias and favoritism.

Explain social identity theory:

• Social Identity Theory posits that individuals' self-concept and behaviors are shaped by their identification with social groups. It emphasizes how group memberships contribute to personal identity and behavior.

Learning Objective 2: Social Construction of Identities

Explain how identities are socially constructed and how they change over time:

• Identities are socially constructed through cultural norms, historical contexts, and social interactions. They evolve over time in response to societal changes and shifts in perceptions.

Describe the important changes that led to the origin of sexual identity:

• Sexual identity emerged through social movements, legal changes, and shifts in societal attitudes towards sexuality, challenging traditional norms and stereotypes.

Recognize how race is a social fact:

• Race is a social construct that categorizes people based on physical characteristics and historical contexts rather than biological differences alone.

Explain how race has been historically socially constructed:

• One-Drop Rule and Blood Quantum Rule: These were manipulated to enforce racial segregation and determine racial identity based on ancestry and appearance rather than genetic or biological criteria.

Define the concept of a psychological wage:

• Psychological wage refers to the non-monetary benefits that certain groups receive from maintaining a social identity, such as perceived superiority or moral standing.

Learning Objective 3: Stereotypes and Social Identities

Demonstrate how stereotypes guide the performance of our social identities:

• Stereotypes are simplified and standardized beliefs about groups that influence how individuals perceive themselves and others, shaping behaviors and interactions.

Explain the difference between sex and gender:

• Sex: Biological differences between males and females.
• Gender: Socially constructed roles, behaviors, and identities associated with being male or female.

Define intersex, cisgender, transgender, and nonbinary:

• Intersex: Individuals born with variations in sex characteristics that do not fit typical definitions of male or female.
• Cisgender: Individuals whose gender identity aligns with their sex assigned at birth.
• Transgender: Individuals whose gender identity differs from their sex assigned at birth.
• Nonbinary: Individuals whose gender identity does not strictly conform to binary notions of male or female.

Describe how gender stereotypes change over time:

• Gender stereotypes evolve as societal norms and expectations about masculinity and femininity shift, influenced by cultural changes and social movements.

Identify how content analysis can be used to measure representation in the media:

• Content analysis examines media content to identify patterns, themes, and representations of social groups, revealing biases and stereotypes.

Explain what it means to perform an identity:

• Performing an identity involves actively expressing and embodying aspects of one's social identity through behaviors, language, and appearance in social interactions.

Learning Objective 4: Esteem and Intersectionality of Identities

Identify the mechanisms by which some identities are accorded greater esteem than others and understand how identities along one dimension intersect with others:

• Link between Consumption and Stigma: Social status and identity can be influenced by consumption patterns, where certain products or lifestyles confer status while others may stigmatize.
• Thinness and Conspicuous Consumption: Thinness in modern society can be associated with status and social acceptance, driven by media representations and cultural ideals of beauty.
• Impact of Controlling Images and High/Low Status Identity: Controlling images are stereotypes that shape perceptions of social groups, influencing their status and opportunities.
• Explicit and Implicit Attitudes: Explicit attitudes are consciously held beliefs, while implicit attitudes are unconscious biases that affect behavior and perception.
• Computational Sociology: This field uses computational methods to analyze digital data and understand social behaviors and interactions online.
• Intersectionality: This concept explores how social identities intersect and interact, shaping experiences of privilege, discrimination, and social power dynamics.

Overall: List and identify the five steps by which a human feature becomes a social identity:

1. Recognition: Identification and categorization of a human feature.
2. Labeling: Assigning a name or category to the feature.
3. Significance: Attribution of meaning and importance to the feature within a social context.
4. Elaboration: Development of norms, roles, and expectations associated with the feature.
5. Institutionalization: Incorporation of the feature into social institutions, practices, and structures.

Blood Quantum Rule

This is a rule used by some people to determine membership in a Native American tribe based on the amount of Native American ancestry one has. It's akin to suggesting that a certain quantity of Native American blood is necessary for inclusion in the group.

Cisgender

This refers to someone whose gender identity aligns with the sex they were assigned at birth. For example, a person designated female at birth who identifies and lives as a woman.

Computational Sociology

This involves using computers and computational methods to study how people interact and behave in social settings. It can include analyzing social networks, behaviors online, or patterns in large datasets to understand social dynamics.

Conspicuous Consumption

This refers to the practice of purchasing goods or services primarily to display wealth or status, often with the intention of gaining social recognition or admiration. For instance, buying a flashy new item to impress others.

Consumption

This encompasses the act of using or purchasing goods and services. It broadly refers to the utilization of resources to satisfy human needs and desires, such as consuming food, clothing, and entertainment.

Content Analysis

This is a research method that involves systematically analyzing the content of various forms of communication, such as books, movies, or social media posts, to understand their meanings, themes, and impacts on individuals and society.

Controlling Images

These are stereotypes or pervasive ideas used to shape and control public perceptions about specific groups. For example, portraying certain ethnic groups always in a positive or negative light to influence public opinion.

Distinction

This is a characteristic or feature that sets a person or group apart from others. It can include visible markers like clothing or behavior that signal membership in a particular social group or status.

Doing Identity

This refers to the ways individuals actively demonstrate and express their identities through actions, choices, and self-presentation. For example, dressing in a particular style to reflect personal values or affiliations.

Ethnicity

This refers to a shared cultural heritage, including language, customs, traditions, and often a common ancestry. It distinguishes groups of people who identify with each other based on these factors.

Gender Binary

This is the belief that there are only two distinct and opposite genders: male and female. It excludes nonbinary and gender non-conforming identities that fall outside this traditional classification.

Gender

This refers to the socially and culturally constructed roles, behaviors, expressions, and identities that a society considers appropriate for men and women. It encompasses both personal identity and societal expectations.

In-Group Bias

This is the tendency for individuals to favor and show preference towards members of their own social group over those who are perceived as outsiders or members of different groups.

Intersectionality

This is the idea that various aspects of social identity, such as race, gender, class, and sexuality, intersect and overlap to shape individual experiences, opportunities, and social outcomes.

Intersex

This refers to individuals born with variations in sex characteristics that do not fit typical definitions of male or female. It challenges traditional binary concepts of sex and gender.

Minimal Group Paradigm

This is an experimental method used to study intergroup behavior, showing that even minimal and arbitrary group distinctions (e.g., based on a trivial characteristic) can lead to ingroup favoritism and outgroup discrimination.

Nonbinary

This refers to individuals who do not exclusively identify as male or female, or who identify as both, neither, or another gender altogether. Nonbinary identities exist outside the traditional binary classification of gender.

One-Drop Rule

This is an outdated concept asserting that any person with even a trace of African ancestry is considered Black, regardless of their appearance or identification with other racial or ethnic groups.

Positive Distinction

This refers to the perception or belief that one's own social group possesses unique, valuable, or superior qualities compared to other groups. It often involves emphasizing positive attributes to bolster group identity.

Prejudice

This refers to preconceived opinions or attitudes held about individuals or groups without sufficient knowledge, reason, or experience. It often involves negative judgments based on stereotypes or biases.

Psychological Wage

This refers to the non-monetary rewards and benefits, such as social status, respect, or perceived superiority, that individuals derive from their occupational or social roles.

Race

This is a social construct used to categorize people based on physical traits such as skin color, facial features, and hair texture. It has been historically used to justify social hierarchies and inequalities.

Sex

This refers to biological characteristics that typically categorize individuals as male or female, based on reproductive anatomy and secondary sex characteristics.

Sexual Minorities

These are individuals whose sexual orientation or behaviors differ from societal norms or majority sexual orientations. Examples include gay, lesbian, bisexual, and queer individuals.

Social Identities

These are aspects of an individual's self-concept that come from their membership in various social groups, such as family roles, occupational identities, or cultural affiliations.

Social Identity Theory

This theory posits that a person's self-concept and self-esteem are partly derived from the social groups they belong to and the status associated with those groups.

Status

This refers to an individual's relative position in a social hierarchy, often determined by factors such as wealth, power, or prestige within a group or society.

Stereotype

This refers to oversimplified and often distorted beliefs or judgments about individuals or groups based on their perceived characteristics or membership in a particular social category.

Transgender

This refers to individuals whose gender identity differs from the sex they were assigned at birth. Transgender individuals may identify as male, female, both, neither, or another gender entirely.

Unit 4

Learning Objective 1: Explain how social interaction is guided by social rules

1. Understand what constitutes social interaction:
   • Social interaction involves people communicating and engaging with each other, influencing behaviors and perceptions.
2. Identify relevant social rules that guide social interaction:
   • Social rules are norms and expectations that govern how people behave in various social contexts. They dictate proper conduct, etiquette, and acceptable behaviors.
3. Identify and describe the types of social rules that guide social interaction:
   • Folkways: Informal norms governing everyday behavior.
   • Mores: Strongly held norms with moral significance.
   • Laws: Formal rules established by authorities.
4. Explain what breaching is and how it is differentiated from simply breaking a norm:
   • Breaching involves purposefully violating a social norm to observe reactions and challenge social expectations.
   • Different from breaking a norm, which may occur unintentionally or without awareness of the norm.

Learning Objective 2: Summarize the theory of symbolic interaction & Identify the main elements of dramaturgy

1. Identify who developed the theory of symbolic interactionism:
   • Developed by George Herbert Mead and further elaborated by Herbert Blumer.
2. Describe the three key assertions of the theory of symbolic interactionism:
   • Meaning: Human actions and interactions are based on the meanings they attribute to things.
   • Language: Language (symbols) enables humans to generate meaning through interaction.
   • Thought: The process of thinking enables individuals to interpret and respond to symbols.
3. Explain how social interactions can be considered fragile:
   • Social interactions depend heavily on shared meanings and interpretations. Misunderstandings or disagreements over meanings can disrupt interactions.
4. Explain how the dramaturgical approach views social life:
   • The dramaturgical approach, developed by Erving Goffman, likens social life to a theatrical performance where individuals play roles to manage impressions.
5. Explain how and why we engage in performances, differentiating between front stage and back stage:
   • Front stage: Where individuals perform in public, adhering to social roles and norms.
   • Back stage: Where individuals can be themselves, away from public scrutiny.
6. Describe what impression management entails:
   • Impression management involves controlling how others perceive you by managing your behavior, appearance, and communication.

Learning Objective 3: Analyze how social identities shape our social interactions

1. Explain the difference between marked and unmarked statuses:
   • Marked statuses are visibly different or stigmatized (e.g., race, disability).
   • Unmarked statuses are not immediately noticeable (e.g., being right-handed).
2. Understand how settings can affect how identities are perceived to 'belong' or 'stand out':
   • Different settings may highlight certain aspects of identity more prominently or diminish their significance.
3. Describe how identities are associated with roles and the consequences of this association:
   • Identities often align with social roles that dictate expectations and behaviors. Deviations from these roles can lead to social consequences.
4. Explain the ways that identity-based discrimination expresses itself as demonstrated through field experiments:
   • Field experiments can reveal how identity (race, gender, etc.) influences treatment and opportunities in various contexts.
5. Describe the impact that cultural expectations of our identities can have, and the extra work those with marked statuses have to manage impressions as a consequence:
   • Cultural expectations shape how individuals with marked statuses must navigate social interactions and manage impressions to counter stereotypes or biases.

Learning Objective 4: Explain ethnomethodology

1. Describe what ethnomethods are and how we use them:
   • Ethnomethods are methods people use to make sense of the social world and navigate everyday interactions.
   • Examples include following social norms, interpreting gestures, or using language in specific ways.
2. How can we make ethnomethods visible?
   • By studying and analyzing everyday interactions, researchers can uncover the implicit rules and methods people use to maintain social order and understandings.

Account

This is when someone explains why they did something, like saying "I spilled the juice because I tripped."

Back Stage

This is when you're being yourself and not worried about what others think, like playing in your room where no one can see you.

Breaching

This is breaking the usual rules to see how people react, like walking backward instead of forward to see what your friends do.

Dramaturgy

This is thinking about life like a play, where everyone acts in certain ways depending on where they are and who is watching, like pretending to be polite at dinner even if you're feeling silly.

Ethnomethodology

This is studying how people make sense of their everyday lives, like watching how everyone knows to take turns on the slide without anyone telling them.

Face

This is the image or impression you want others to see, like smiling to show you're happy even if you're feeling a little sad inside.

Field Experiment

This is doing an experiment in a real-world setting, like seeing if kids share more toys at the park than in the classroom.

Folkways

These are the everyday habits and ways of doing things that people follow, like saying "hello" when you see someone.

Front Stage

This is when you're acting a certain way because others are watching, like being extra polite when guests are over.

Impression Management

This is trying to control how others see you, like dressing up nicely for a picture.

Interpersonal Discrimination

This is when someone treats another person unfairly because of who they are, like not playing with someone because of their skin color.

Laws

These are rules made by the government that everyone has to follow, like stopping at a red light.

Marked and Unmarked Identities

A marked identity is something noticeable and often talked about, like being the only kid with red hair. An unmarked identity is something that's not usually noticed or mentioned, like having brown hair.

Mores

These are very important rules in a culture that people must follow, like not stealing from others.

Norms

These are the usual ways people behave in a group, like raising your hand to speak in class.

Policies

These are rules made by organizations or groups, like a school's rule that everyone must wear a uniform.

Role Identity Match and Mismatch

This is when how you see yourself fits (or doesn't fit) with how others see you, like wanting to be the leader of a game and others agreeing (or not agreeing).

Social Interaction

This is how people talk and act with each other, like playing and chatting with friends.

Social Rules

These are the guidelines for how to behave in different situations, like being quiet in a library.

Social Sanctions

These are rewards or punishments to make sure people follow the rules, like getting a timeout for breaking a rule or a sticker for good behavior.

Symbolic Interactionism

This is the idea that people give meanings to things based on their interactions with others, like understanding a high-five means "good job."

Taboos

These are very strong rules about things people should never do, like how in some places, it's a big no-no to eat certain foods.

Unit 5

Learning Objective 1: Deviance as a Social Construct

Define deviance:

• Deviance refers to behaviors, actions, or characteristics that violate social norms and expectations.

Identify the process for defining behaviors as deviant through social interaction:

• Behaviors are defined as deviant through social interaction where individuals or groups establish and enforce norms, labeling certain behaviors as unacceptable or outside the norm.

Explain how deviance is a violation of norms:

• Deviance involves behaviors that contradict or violate established social norms, which can vary across cultures and contexts.

Learning Objective 2: Sociological Theories of Deviance

Describe the key concepts of strain theory:

• Strain theory, developed by Robert Merton, explains deviance as a result of strain or stress experienced when individuals are unable to achieve socially accepted goals through legitimate means.
  • Conformity: Accepting both cultural goals and the means to achieve them.
  • Innovation: Accepting cultural goals but rejecting or lacking the means, leading to deviant means to achieve success.
  • Ritualism: Rejecting cultural goals but accepting the means, resulting in a routine existence without striving for success.
  • Retreatism: Rejecting both cultural goals and the means, withdrawing from society.
  • Rebellion: Rejecting and replacing cultural goals and means with new ones to bring about social change.

Explain the role of peers in influencing deviance according to differential association theory:

• Differential association theory, by Edwin Sutherland, posits that individuals learn deviant behaviors from the people they associate with most frequently, especially during formative years.

Identify the key components of social disorganization theory:

• Social disorganization theory focuses on how crime and deviance are linked to the absence or breakdown of communal relationships and social institutions in certain neighborhoods or communities.

Describe the technique of neutralization and give an example of each:

• Neutralization techniques are used to justify deviant behavior:
  • Denial of responsibility: Claiming the action was beyond their control.
  • Denial of injury: Minimizing the harm caused by the action.
  • Denial of victim: Blaming the victim for their actions.
  • Condemnation of the condemners: Criticizing those who disapprove of the behavior.
  • Appeal to higher loyalties: Justifying actions based on loyalty to a higher cause.

Identify how labeling influences our behaviors via secondary deviation:

• Labeling theory suggests that being labeled as deviant can lead individuals to internalize this identity, which can result in further deviant behavior or a deviant subculture (secondary deviation).

Identify how sociologists use survey research and historical sociology to study social phenomena:

• Survey Research: Uses structured questionnaires to gather quantitative data on attitudes, behaviors, and demographics related to deviance.
• Historical Sociology: Examines historical trends and contexts to understand how deviance and norms have changed over time.

Learning Objective 3: Structural Functionalism and Deviance

Summarize the theory of structural functionalism and identify the main functions of deviance:

• Structural functionalism views society as a system of interconnected parts that work together to maintain stability and social order.
• Functions of Deviance: According to functionalists like Emile Durkheim, deviance:
  • Clarifies moral boundaries.
  • Promotes social unity.
  • Encourages social change.

According to functionalists, why does Emile Durkheim argue that we need "bad behavior" to promote a collective consciousness?

• Durkheim argues that deviance serves to reaffirm social norms and values by defining what is morally acceptable and reinforcing group solidarity against deviant behavior.

Define 'anomie' and explain why Emile Durkheim feels that we need "bad" behavior to prevent anomie:

• Anomie: A state of normlessness or lack of social cohesion due to rapid social change or breakdown of social norms.
• Durkheim suggests that controlled deviance helps maintain social cohesion and prevents anomie by reaffirming societal norms and values.

Identify the critiques of functionalism:

• Critics argue that functionalism may oversimplify social dynamics, neglecting conflict and power struggles within society. It can also be criticized for justifying the status quo and not adequately addressing social inequalities.

Learning Objective 4: Conflict Theory and Deviance

Explain the main tenets of conflict theory and how they apply to deviance:

• Conflict theory views society as composed of different groups competing for resources and power. Deviance is seen as a result of inequalities and power struggles.
• Conflict theorists are concerned with how dominant groups define deviance to maintain their power and control over marginalized groups.

How would a conflict theorist explain the way deviance operates in society?

• Conflict theorists would argue that deviance is socially constructed by those in power to control and marginalize certain groups whose behavior challenges the status quo.

How does the medicalization of civil rights protestors in the 1960s exemplify the conflict perspective?

• The medicalization of deviance, such as labeling civil rights activists as mentally ill or deviant, was used to discredit their activism and maintain social order and racial segregation.

According to conflict theorists, why did those in power define defiance of the status quo as deviant? How does this differ from labeling theory?

• Conflict theorists argue that labeling certain behaviors as deviant serves the interests of the powerful by justifying social control and legitimizing inequalities. Unlike labeling theory, conflict theory emphasizes the role of power dynamics in defining and enforcing norms.

Anomie

This is when people feel lost or confused because there are no clear rules to follow, like being in a new place where you don't know how to act.

Appeal to Higher Loyalties

This is when someone does something wrong but says it was for a good reason, like helping a friend even if it means breaking a rule.

Collective Conscience

This is the shared beliefs and values of a group, like everyone in a class agreeing that it's important to be kind.

Collective Effervescence

This is the energy and excitement people feel when they come together for a big event, like a parade or a big game.

Concentrated Poverty

This is when many people in the same area are very poor, like a neighborhood where almost everyone has little money.

Condemnation of the Condemners

This is when someone who did something wrong points out that others do bad things too, like saying "Well, you did it too!" when caught misbehaving.

Conflict Theory

This is the idea that society is made up of groups that fight over resources and power, like kids arguing over who gets the last cookie.

Conformity

This is when people follow the rules and do what others do, like everyone wearing the same school uniform.

Criminal Deviance

This is breaking laws and doing things that are considered crimes, like stealing or vandalizing.

Criminalization

This is making certain actions illegal, like deciding that littering is against the law.

Denial of Injury

This is when someone says what they did didn't hurt anyone, like saying "It was just a joke" after making a mean comment.

Denial of Responsibility

This is when someone says what they did was not their fault, like saying "It wasn't me" when caught doing something wrong.

Denial of the Victim

This is when someone says the person they hurt deserved it, like saying "They were mean to me first" after hitting someone.

Deviance

This is doing things that go against the rules or norms, like coloring on the walls instead of paper.

Differential Association Theory

This is the idea that people learn to behave by spending time with others, like learning good manners by being around polite friends.

Generalizable

This means something learned from one group can be applied to other groups, like finding out that all kids like ice cream by asking just a few.

Historical Sociology

This is studying how societies have changed over time, like looking at how people dressed and lived long ago.

Innovation

This is coming up with new and creative ideas or ways to do things, like inventing a new game to play.

Labeling

This is when people give names or categories to others based on their behavior, like calling someone a "troublemaker."

Labeling Theory

This is the idea that labeling people affects how they act and how others treat them, like a kid who is called "smart" trying hard to keep being smart.

Medicalization

This is treating certain behaviors or conditions as medical issues, like saying someone who is very sad might need to see a doctor.

Neutralization Theory

This is the idea that people justify their wrong actions in different ways, like saying "Everyone else was doing it" to excuse misbehavior.

Primary Deviance

This is the first time someone breaks a rule, like taking a cookie without asking.

Rebellion

This is rejecting and trying to change the rules, like kids deciding to make their own game instead of following the teacher's rules.

Retreatism

This is when someone gives up on both the goals and the rules of society, like quitting a game because they don't want to follow the rules or try to win.

Ritualism

This is following the rules even if you don't believe in the goals, like going through the motions of a game without trying to win.

Sample

This is a small group chosen to represent a larger group, like picking a few kids from a class to find out what the whole class likes.

Secondary Deviance

This is continuing to break rules after being labeled as a rule-breaker, like a kid who keeps misbehaving because everyone already calls them a troublemaker.

Social Disorganization Theory

This is the idea that communities with lots of problems, like crime and poverty, have a harder time keeping things organized and safe.

Social Inequality

This is when some people have more resources or opportunities than others, like some kids having lots of toys while others have few.

Social Stability

This is when a society is steady and functions well, like a classroom where everyone follows the rules and gets along.

Stigmatization

This is marking someone as different or bad because of their behavior, like calling someone names because they broke a rule.

Strain Theory

This is the idea that people might break rules when they can't achieve society's goals in the usual ways, like cheating on a test because they feel they can't pass otherwise.

Structural Functionalism

This is the idea that all parts of society work together to keep it running smoothly, like how all parts of a school (teachers, students, rules) work together.

Survey

This is a method of collecting information by asking people questions, like asking your friends what their favorite ice cream is.

White Collar Crime

This is non-violent crime usually done for money by people in professional jobs, like stealing money from a company.