Civilizations in Crisis: The Ottoman Empire, the Arab Heartlands, and Qing China

Chapter 26: Civilizations in Crisis: The Ottoman Empire, the Arab Heartlands, and Qing China (1750-1900)

Major Events and Rulers

  • Qing Dynasty in China:

    • 1644: Manchu nomads conquer China and establish the Qing dynasty, ending the Ming dynasty.

    • 1644-1772: Reign of the Kangxi Emperor.

    • 1736-1799: Reign of the Qianlong Emperor.

    • 1805-1849: Muhammad Ali reigns in Egypt, modernizing Egypt.

  • Ottoman Empire:

    • 1727: Introduction of the first printing press in the Ottoman Empire.

    • 1768-1774: Disastrous Russo-Turkish War, weakening the Ottoman Empire against Russian advances.

    • 1798: British embassy to Qianlong Emperor; French invasion of Egypt, ending with Napoleon defeating Mameluk rulers.

  • Egypt:

    • 1807-1839: Reign of Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II.

    • 1826: Destruction of the Janissary corps.

    • 1882: British occupation of Egypt begins.

Key Political Reforms and Changes

Ottoman Reforms

  • Reign of Sultan Selim III (1789-1807):

    • Attempts to modernize the military but is killed by Janissaries.

  • Reign of Sultan Mahmud II (1807-1839):

    • Continues Westernization reforms.

    • Abolishes the Janissaries in 1826.

  • Tanzimat Reforms (1839-1876):

    • Inspired by Enlightenment ideas, aiming to modernize the Ottoman Empire.

    • Establishment of new state-run postal and telegraph systems, and railways in the 1860s.

    • 1876: Adoption of a constitution modeled after European examples.

Qing Reforms

  • 1908: Young Turks seize power in Istanbul, promising various reforms including restored freedoms and social equality.

  • Boxer Rebellion (1898-1901): Aimed at expelling European influence, ultimately leading to increased foreign control.

Economic and Social Context

Ottoman Empire

  • Economic decline due to inflation and loss of trade routes, leading to social unrest.

  • European imports damaged local handicrafts, leading to urban riots and increased demands from local folk.

Qing China

  • Population steadily increases, leading to economic strain and resource depletion.

  • The imposition of land taxes on peasants causes widespread distress and revolts.

Impact of Foreign Powers

Involvement in China

  • Opium Trade: Western nations (notably Britain) force China into accepting opium trade, causing extensive social and economic issues.

    • 1839: Opium War breaks out when the Qing government attempts to suppress the opium trade.

  • 1842: Treaty of Nanjing is signed, opening more ports to foreign trade and ceding Hong Kong to Britain.

  • European powers establish spheres of influence over major cities in China during the mid-19th century, significantly reducing Qing authority.

Ottoman Struggles against European Powers

  • Europe begins to dominate the Ottoman territories amidst internal strife, which includes losing significant regions in the Balkans by the late 19th century.

  • The Balkan provinces increasingly seek independence or autonomy, leading to the notion of the "Sick Man of Europe."

Nationalism and Independence Movements in the Empire

  • The Young Turks advocate for reform and modernization within the Empire, but their rule faces significant resistance from Arab nationalists and other ethnic groups within the Empire.

  • Balkan states (Serbia, Greece) achieve independence, marking the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire's control in Europe.

Significant Rebellions and Responses

  • Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864): Sparked by radical reforms proposed as alternatives to the Qing, leading to massive loss of life and resources.

  • Boxer Rebellion: Reaction against foreign influence showcasing internal instability within Qing China.

Closing Notes on the Ottoman Empire and Qing China

  • Despite attempts at modernization and reform, both empires struggle to adapt effectively to Western pressures and internal challenges, leading to eventual collapses in the early 20th century.

Summary of Terms and Societies

  • Janissaries: Elite infantry in the Ottoman Empire destroyed to modernize the army under Mahmud II.

  • dhimmis: Non-Muslims in Islamic states who had protections under Islamic law.

  • Tanzimat: A series of reforms in the Ottoman Empire aimed at modernization.

  • Suez Canal: Opened in 1869, became a significant focus of British interest in Egypt.

The decline of the Ottoman Empire during this period stemmed from several major factors detailed in the notes:

  1. Military Defeats and External Weakness: The disastrous Russo-Turkish War (1768-1774) significantly weakened the empire against Russian advances. Europe subsequently started dominating Ottoman territories.

  2. Internal Resistance to Reform: Attempts to modernize the military, such as those initiated by Sultan Selim III, were met with severe opposition, including the Janissaries, who assassinated him. While later Sultans like Mahmud II managed to abolish the Janissary corps, internal strife persisted.

  3. Economic Issues: The empire faced economic decline due to inflation and the loss of major trade routes. European imports flooded the market, damaging local handicrafts and sparking urban riots and social unrest.

  4. Rise of Nationalism: Nationalist movements led to the loss of significant European territories, as Balkan states (like Serbia and Greece) achieved independence, leading to the designation of the Ottoman Empire as the "Sick Man of Europe."

The Tanzimat Reforms (1839-1876) were a series of modernizing efforts in the Ottoman Empire inspired by Enlightenment ideas. Key changes included:

  1. Modernization of Infrastructure: The establishment of new state-run postal and telegraph systems, and the construction of railways in the 1860s.

  2. Constitutionalism: The adoption of a constitution in 1876, which was modeled after European examples, as part of the effort to modernize the political structure.

The notes highlight the importance of Sultan Selim III and Sultan Mahmud II in the efforts to modernize the Ottoman Empire, while Sultan Abdul Hamid II is associated with the culminating events of the Tanzimat era and the rise of the Young Turks.

  • Sultan Selim III (1789-1807): He was important for initiating attempts to modernize the military by modeling it after European examples. However, this initiative was met with severe resistance from traditional power groups, specifically the Janissaries, who ultimately rose up and killed him.

  • Sultan Mahmud II (1807-1839): He was crucial for continuing the Westernization reforms begun by Selim III despite internal opposition. His most significant act was the successful destruction (abolition) of the Janissary corps in 1826, removing a major obstacle to modernization efforts within the empire.

  • Sultan Abdul Hamid II (1876-1909): Although not explicitly named in the reform sections of the note, he was the Sultan associated with vital milestones of this era. His importance stems from the adoption of a constitution in 1876 (modeled after European examples, concluding the Tanzimat reforms) and the eventual seizure of power by the Young Turks in Istanbul in 1908, who promised restored freedoms and social equality.

The cause of the Opium War was the imposition of the opium trade on China by Western nations (notably Britain), which caused extensive social and economic issues. The war broke out in 1839 when the Qing government attempted to suppress this trade. The primary effects of the Opium War were:

  1. The signing of the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842, which opened more ports to foreign trade and ceded Hong Kong to Britain.

  2. The subsequent establishment of European spheres of influence over major cities in China during the mid-19th century, which significantly reduced Qing authority.

The Taiping Rebellion (1850

-1864) sought to fundamentally change Chinese society through radical reforms proposed as alternatives to the Qing dynasty. The movement, led by Hong Xiuquan, sought:

  1. Social Restructuring: Achieving major social restructuring within China.

  2. Economic Reform: Advocating for land redistribution, communal property, and the abolition of private property.

  3. Gender Equality: Promoting genuine gender equality.

  4. Religious Change: Introducing a new monotheistic interpretation of Christianity combined with Chinese traditions.

The primary impact of the rebellion included:

  1. Massive Casualties: It caused a massive loss of life (in the tens of millions) and resources across China.

  2. Weakening Central Authority: It significantly weakened the Qing dynasty's central authority, requiring regional armies to suppress the revolt, which led to further internal instability.

The Boxers were members of a secret society in China (known as the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists, hence the name "Boxers," due to their martial arts practices) who led the Boxer Rebellion (1898-1901). They were primarily trying to accomplish the expulsion of European influence and foreign control from China.

The rebellion was ultimately unsuccessful in achieving its goal. Instead of expelling foreigners, the rebellion showcased the internal instability within Qing China and ultimately led to increased foreign control over the country.