Immigration and American Identity

W. Whitman & American Identity

W. Whitman, a pivotal 19th-century poet, significantly shaped the self-definition myths of the USA, notably through his seminal work Leaves of Grass (1855). His poetry celebrated the diversity and potential of the American populace, contributing to the idealistic vision of the nation. Whitman's unique contribution lies in his embrace of both the individual and the collective, portraying America as a grand experiment in democracy and human potential.

This quote underscores the notion of America as a diverse amalgamation of nations, each contributing its unique cultural and historical narrative to the national identity. Whitman envisioned a nation where diverse voices could coexist and contribute to a shared national project. However, despite this inclusive vision, negative reactions to immigrants persist in America today, highlighting ongoing tensions between the ideal and reality. These tensions reveal the complexities of integrating diverse populations while maintaining social cohesion.

Major Thoughts on Migration (19th & 20th Centuries)

• Cultural Pluralists (1890s-1920s): Influential figures such as Horace Kallen, Randolph Bourne, and Louis Adamic championed a "Trans-national America." They advocated for the recognition and preservation of diverse cultural identities within the American context, enriching the national fabric. Their ideas challenged the prevailing assimilationist views and promoted a vision of America as a mosaic of cultures.

• Kennedy, A Nation of Immigrants (1958): John F. Kennedy's work emphasized the pivotal role of immigrants in enriching and strengthening American life. He highlighted their contributions to the nation's economic, cultural, and social vitality. Kennedy's book served as a powerful reminder of the vital role immigration has played in shaping American society.

However, immigrants have historically faced discrimination due to race and other factors, underscoring the complexities of acceptance and integration into American society. This discrimination stems from various sources, including nativism, xenophobia, and economic anxieties.

Terminology of Migration

The term "migrate" originates from "migrare," broadly encompassing both emigration and immigration. P. Carravetta defines it as:

Immigration involves three key stages:

1. Departing: The initial stage of leaving one's homeland, often driven by various factors such as economic hardship, political instability, or persecution. The decision to leave is often a difficult and complex one, involving significant personal and social costs.

2. Traveling (Passage): The often perilous journey to a new land, characterized by challenging conditions and, historically, high mortality rates. Throughout history, countless immigrants have faced immense hardships during their voyages, including disease, starvation, and violence.

3. Arrival (Cultural Shock): Upon arrival, immigrants experience cultural shock, leading to various outcomes including:

   • Adaptation: Adjusting to the norms and customs of the new society. This involves learning new languages, navigating unfamiliar social systems, and adopting new cultural practices.

   • Assimilation (Melting Pot): Adopting the dominant culture and shedding one's original cultural identity. This process can lead to the loss of cultural heritage and traditions.

   • Negotiation: Balancing elements of both the original and new cultures. This approach allows immigrants to maintain their cultural identity while integrating into the new society.

   • Transnationalism (Pluralism): Maintaining connections to both the homeland and the new society, fostering a pluralistic identity. Transnationalism reflects the increasing interconnectedness of the world and the ability of immigrants to maintain ties to multiple cultures and societies.

Diaspora

Originally denoting the Jewish displacement from ancient Palestine, "diaspora" now applies to a wide range of migration experiences:

The voluntary nature of diasporic migration remains a topic of debate. While some diasporas are the result of forced displacement, others are formed through voluntary migration in search of economic opportunities or political refuge. The question of whether the U.S. truly embodies a "Nation of immigrants" is complex, particularly when considering the historical context of Indigenous Peoples and African Americans. Their experiences of forced displacement and marginalization challenge the notion of the U.S. as a welcoming nation for all. Most African Americans are not immigrants, giving rise to the concept of a "New African Diaspora" (Teju Cole, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, Chris Abani), reflecting their unique experiences of displacement and cultural identity. This concept highlights the ongoing impact of the transatlantic slave trade on the African diaspora and the struggle for racial justice in the United States.

Studying Migration: Identity & Belonging

Historically, whiteness served as a prerequisite for assimilation. The concept of whiteness has been used to exclude and marginalize various groups throughout American history. The first two major immigrant waves consisted of North-Europeans and Chinese, although the latter faced exclusion starting in 1880. The Chinese Exclusion Act demonstrates the discriminatory policies that have been used to restrict immigration based on race and ethnicity. Early Italian immigrants also encountered significant discrimination, facing prejudice and stereotypes that hindered their integration into American society.

P. Carravetta emphasizes the importance of considering identity, belonging, and the interplay between geography, history, and historical memory when studying migration.

He further highlights the challenges migration poses to Euroamerican ethno-centric mythologies and social structures. The influx of diverse populations challenges existing power structures and cultural norms, leading to social and political tensions. Demographic shifts are asynchronous, conflicting, and defy traditional notions of unity or universal law. The increasing diversity of American society necessitates a reevaluation of traditional notions of national identity and social cohesion. Migration compels us to reconsider the contemporary meaning of "nation."

Migrant Perceptions

One of the primary fears surrounding immigration is the perceived threat to national identity, despite the understanding that the concept of "nation" is a social construct. National identity is often based on shared cultural values, historical narratives, and social norms, which can be perceived as threatened by the arrival of newcomers.

The migrant is often viewed as:

• "the archetypal stranger, every country’s barbarian, the entry point to an understanding of alterity, and the necessary other for any definition of self or social-political identity" The stranger represents the unknown and unfamiliar, challenging established social boundaries and norms.

• "the uncanny other, an unsettling reminder of how either we used to be, at some point in our past, or what we can become if […] the tables are turned, and find ourselves literally, not metaphorically, ‘out there’, better, in the streets." The "uncanny other" evokes feelings of unease and anxiety, reflecting the fear of social and economic displacement.

This "uncanny other" elicits psychological projection and fear, influencing perceptions of migrants across generations. These perceptions can lead to prejudice, discrimination, and the marginalization of immigrant communities.

Immigrant Literature

Immigrants have pioneered new literary genres, particularly autobiographies, yet have faced obstacles due to the dominance of "mainstream" WHITE literature within the Literary and Ethnic Canon. Autobiographies provide a powerful platform for immigrants to share their stories and challenge dominant narratives. The dominance of "mainstream" literature often marginalizes the voices and experiences of immigrant writers.

Internal Migrations

• Westward Expansion: The displacement of Native Americans during the westward expansion represents a significant chapter in American history, marked by conflict and cultural disruption. This expansion led to the forced removal of Indigenous peoples from their ancestral lands and the destruction of their cultures.

• 1850s Gold Rush: The California Gold Rush spurred mass migration to the West, transforming the region's demographics and economy. This influx of migrants led to rapid social and economic changes, as well as increased competition for resources.

• Great Migration (1910s-1920s): African Americans migrated from the South to Northern industrialized states in search of economic opportunities and relative freedom from racial segregation. This migration led to significant demographic shifts and the growth of African American communities in Northern cities.

• "Dust Bowl" Migrants: The ecological disaster of the Dust Bowl led to the migration of people from Oklahoma and Texas to California, seeking refuge and livelihood. These migrants faced immense hardship and discrimination as they sought to rebuild their lives in a new land.

• Contemporary Internal Migrations: Modern internal migrations include seasonal workers and van dwellers, as depicted in "Nomadland," reflecting evolving patterns of mobility and economic adaptation. These migrations reflect the changing nature of work and the increasing precarity of employment in the 21st century.

Emigration from the U.S.

• Expatriates: Figures like Gertrude Stein, Ezra Pound, and T.S. Eliot chose to live abroad, often in pursuit of artistic and intellectual freedom. Expatriation can be a form of cultural critique, as individuals seek to escape the perceived limitations of their home country.

• Lost Generation: The Lost Generation, including F.S. Fitzgerald, E. Hemingway, and S. Anderson, grappled with disillusionment and alienation in the aftermath of World War I. Their works reflect a sense of loss and disorientation in the face of a rapidly changing world.

• Richard Wright, James Baldwin: These authors juxtaposed the idealized myth of the U.S. as a land of freedom with their firsthand experiences of segregation and racial injustice. Their writings challenged the prevailing narratives of American exceptionalism and exposed the deep-seated inequalities within American society.

Migration and Literature in the U.S.

Key questions to consider include:

• Did immigrants invent new literary genres, and if so, how did these genres reflect their unique experiences and perspectives? Immigrant literature often explores themes of identity, displacement, and cultural hybridity.

• How did immigrant writers integrate into the established