BIO TEAS
Chromatin | Chromatin is comprised of histones and DNA (147 base pairs of DNA wraps around the 8 core histones to form the basic chromatin unit, the nucleosome). The function of chromatin is to efficiently package DNA into a small volume to fit into the nucleus of a cell and protect the DNA structure and sequence. Packaging DNA into chromatin allows for mitosis and meiosis, prevents chromosome breakage and controls gene expression and DNA replication. | |
nucleus | • The nucleus houses the cell’s genetic material (DNA) and is responsible for controlling the processes of transcription (conversion of DNA into mRNA) and translation (in conjunction with ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized). | |
nucleolus | he nucleolus is responsible for assembling RNA and proteins into ribosomes, which are the cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis. | |
Golgi Aparatus | ||
ribosome | Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis in the cell. They assemble amino acids into polypeptide chains and form peptide bonds between them, following the instructions carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). | |
Mitochondria | Mitochondria (singular—mitochondrion) are membrane-bound organelles found in the cells of most eukaryotic organisms. Mitochondria are sometimes referred to as the powerhouse of the cell, as they produce most of the energy within a cell. Mitochondria facilitate the production of ATP, the main source of chemical energy in living organisms. •Mitochondria have their own genetic material, separate from the cell’s nuclear DNA. This genetic material is found in the form of a small circular DNA molecule, called the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). This means that mitochondria can replicate and express their own genes, making them semi-autonomous. Mitochondria also all have their own ribosomes and can make their own proteins. They’re almost like a cell within a cell! • Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell and produce ATP, which the cell uses for energy. | |
Chemiosmosis | Chemiosmosis is the process where the energy made during cellular respiration is used to move hydrogen ions across the inner membrane of the mitochondria, creating a proton gradient. | |
ER | The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a continuous membrane system that extends from the nuclear envelope into the cytoplasm. It comes in two types: rough ER, with ribosomes attached, and smooth ER, without ribosomes | |
Smooth ER | The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) function involves manufacturing and packaging, including the synthesis of lipids and hormones which are used for the production of new cellular membranes. | |
Rough ER | The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) function involves the assembly of proteins and the transportation of those assembled ready proteins to where they will be used by the body. • Rough ER helps in protein synthesis required for the rest of the cellular function | |
cell membrane | • The cell membrane protects the cell, allows transport of smaller molecules, and interacts with neighboring cells. It is impermeable to large molecules such as amino acids, sugars, and highly charged molecules like ions. | |
Lysosome | The function of lysosomes is to remove waste as well as destroying a cell after it has died, called autolysis. A lysosome is an organelle containing digestive enzymes which it uses to function as the digestion and waste removal for cells, food particles, bacteria, etc. | |
cytoskeleton | Cytoskeletons are complex protein networks present in the cytoplasm of the cell and carry out vital functions. They regulate the entire cell division and cytokinesis, making sure that the dividing cells and chromosomes are held in place accurately. | |
Taxonomy heirachy | ||
Macromolecules | ||
bile and lipids | ||
lipids | ||
Macromolecule: A macromolecule is a large and complex molecule composed of smaller subunits called monomers. Macromolecules are typically found in biological systems and are vital for various biological processes and functions. | ||
Monomer: A monomer is a small and relatively simple molecule that can chemically bind with other monomers to form a larger, more complex molecule known as a polymer. Monomers are the building blocks of polymers. | ||
Polymer: A polymer is a large molecule made up of repeating subunits called monomers, connected through chemical bonds. | ||
Many monosaccharides linked together create polysaccharides like starch and cellulose, which are used for energy storage and structural support, respectively. Animals, including humans, store glucose (monosaccharide) in the form of long glycogen (polysaccharide) chains. Glycogen is formed through a process called glycogenesis (a dehydration synthesis). In animals, glycogen is stored in the liver and muscle tissue. Any time glucose is needed for cellular energy production, glycogen is hydrolyzed into glucose | ||
Dehydration | Dehydration: refers to the process of joining monomers together to form a polymer while simultaneously releasing a water molecule as a byproduct. | |
LIpid | •macromolecule consisting of hydrogen and carbon •fatty acid and glycerol | |
hydrolysis | Hydrolysis: the process of breaking down polymers into their constituent monomers by the addition of a water molecule. | |
main function for gylocgen in animals | •energy storage | |
Carbohydrate | • Carbohydrate: Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. • They serve as a primary source of energy for living organisms and are classified into three main types: monosaccharides (simple sugars), disaccharides (two sugar units linked together), and polysaccharides (long chains of sugar units). | |
what type of carbohydrate is energy reserve for plants? | polysaccarides… | |
what type of carbohydrate is structural component for plant walls? | •monosaccarides | |
Lipid | • organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents. •They play essential roles in energy storage, insulation, cushioning, and as structural components of cell membranes, and include molecules such as fats, oils, phospholipids, and steroids. •Lipids which include fats, oils, and cholesterol, are essential for cell membrane structure and energy storage •They are made up of fatty acids and glycerol. Fatty acids are long chains of carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms attached. | |
Trigylcerides | Triglycerides provide a major source of slow-burning fuel for resting and sustained physical activity such as sleeping and walking. | |
What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids? | Saturated fatty acids contain no double bonds, unlike unsaturated fatty acids | |
what type of lipid serves as a concentrated energy source for the body? | •trigylcerides | |
Lipids can be saturated (containing only single bonds between carbon atoms) or unsaturated (containing one or more double bonds between carbon atoms). •Lipids are a diverse group of molecules that include fats, oils, waxes, and steroids. They are all hydrophobic, meaning they do not dissolve in water. Lipids serve as long-term energy storage, insulation, and protection for organs. •They are made up of fatty acids and glycerol. • Fatty acids are long chains of carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms attached. | ||
Enzyme: specialized proteins that act as catalysts in biological reactions, facilitating and speeding up these reactions without being consumed or permanently altered in the process. | ||
protein | • Proteins are made up of amino acids and perform a wide range of functions in the body, including structural, enzymatic, and regulatory roles. • While proteins are vital for the expression of genetic traits and are synthesized based on genetic information, they do not themselves carry genetic information. | |
Purine | •one of two types of nitrogenous bases | |
pyrimidine | •one of two types of nitrogenous bases | |
Nucleic Acid | Nucleic Acid: macromolecules that are crucial for storing, transmitting, and expressing genetic information in living organisms. They are composed of nucleotide subunits and come in two primary forms: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) | |
dyhydration sythesis | •joins monomers to form a polymer • water h20 is a byproduct | |
hyrolysis | • breaking down polymers • hydrolysis utilezed water to break down covalent bonds •Hydrolysis: This is a chemical reaction where water is used to break down larger molecules into smaller ones. A water molecule is added during the process to cleave the bonds in the larger molecule. | |
enzyme for carbs | • amalyse | |
enzyme for proteins | • pepsin • trypsin | |
enzyme for lipids | • lipase | |
peptide bonds | • which are covalent chemical bonds linking amino acids together in a chain. A peptide bond is formed when the carboxyl group of one amino acid reacts with the amino group of another amino acid, releasing a molecule of water. This bond is fundamental to the structure of proteins. | |
_______ are more relevant in the tertiary and quaternary structures of proteins | Ionic bonds are more relevant in the tertiary and quaternary structures of proteins | |
---------stabilize the alpha helices and beta sheets, which are common motifs in protein secondary structures. | These hydrogen bonds stabilize the alpha helices and beta sheets, which are common motifs in protein secondary structures. | |
What is the role of enzymes in biochemical reactions? | Lowering the activation energy required for a reaction | |
Steriod | •structure of 4 fused carbon rings • sythesize hormones | |
Waxes | • long chain fatty acid with alcohol • solid water repellant structure • serve as protective coating | |
triglycerrides | •three fatty acids and a glycerol molecule • act as concentrated form of energy •provide cushioning / protection for body | |
starch | •polymer consisting of glucose | |
molecule | •compound held together by covalent bonds | |
Amino acids | Amino acids are made of a centrally located carbon, an amine group, a carboxylic acid, and a side group. There are 20 different amino acids. Each amino acid has different properties due to its side group. These varying side groups give each protein its various properties and structures. The link between amino acids is a covalent bond called a “peptide bond”. Proteins have a specific three-dimensional shape that determines their function. They can act as enzymes, antibodies, transport molecules, and perform many other vital roles in the body. | |
Phospholipid | ||
Phospholipid | •gycerol molecule bonded with to two fatty acids and a phosphate group • phosphate group is hydrophilic head • gylcerol is hydrophibic tail • major components of cell membrenes • | |
proteins | • essential for the stucture, regulation, and function or cells, organs, and tissues. •composed of long chains ofamino acid monomers • amino acids are a carbon group a amine group and a side group •there are 20 different amino acids •linked amino acids are build via covalent peptide bonds • Proteins have a specific three-dimensional shape that determines their function. They can act as enzymes, antibodies, transport molecules, and perform many other vital roles in the body. | |
Nucleic Acids | • composed of nucelotides (amino acids) • Nucleic acids are polymers made of nucleotides that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. • •Nucleic acids are responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information. The two main types of nucleic acids are DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid). | |
nucleotides | • nucleotides are a 5 -carbon sugar molecule, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base • Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids like DNA and RNA, which carry genetic information. DNA and RNA are polymers made of long chains of nucleotides, and they encode the instructions necessary for building and maintaining an organism | |
components for nucleootides | It consists of a pentose sugar, a nitrogenous base, and one or more phosphate groups. formed via phosphodiester the bond is formed between the 3′ carbon atom of one sugar molecule and the 5′ carbon atom of the other sugar molecule in the chain. | |
what is a codon? | A codon is a sequence of three DNA or RNA nucleotides that corresponds with a specific amino acid or stop signal during protein synthesis. | |
DNA | • double stranded • carried the genetic information and instruction for building protiens for building an organism •thymine | |
RNA | • involved in protein sythesis • ribose •uracil | |
mRNA | mRNA carries the genetic instructions from DNA to the protein-making machinery in the cell. | |
tRNA | tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosomes during protein synthesis. | |
rRNA | rRNA is a crucial component of ribosomes, the cellular machinery where proteins are assembled. | |
What is the DNA ladder made of? | Two complementary strands of DNA spiral around each other to form a molecule that has the appearance of a long, twisted ladder. The outer side rails of the ladder are made of alternating sugar and phosphate groups that form the backbone of each strand of DNA. The rungs of the ladder are formed by pairs of nitrogenous bases that protrude from the DNA strands and bond to each other | |
complementary dna strands | Principle in which the nitrogenous bases of the DNA molecules bond with one another | |
melanocytes | ||
eukarotic cells | ||
prokariotic cells | ||
osmosis | Osmosis is the spontaneous movement of water molecules through a selectively permeable membrane. | |
active transport | ||
facilitated diffusion | ||
biology | ||
Punnet square | • The mother's gene is placed vertically and the father's is placed horizontally. | |
di hy brid inheritance | Dihybrid inheritance is the cross between two parents with different alleles for two traits. The dihybrid ratio reflects 9 dominant phenotypes for two separate traits, 3 dominant phenotypes for one trait and recessive for the second trait, 3 recessive phenotypes for one trait and dominant for the second trait, and 1 recessive phenotype for both traits. | |
mendells law of dominance | •dominant alle that will be expressed if present in genotypes • | |
genotype | •organisms genetic makeup • A genotype is a specific combination of alleles found in a given organism that determines a particular trait. | |
phenotype | •observable physical traits of an organism •expression of the genes | |
inhertiance traits in humans | • In humans, gametogenesis occurs through meiosis and not mitosis. | |
stem cell differentiation | •When a cell differentiates (becomes more specialized), it may undertake major changes in its size, shape, metabolic activity, and overall function. •all cells contain the same full complement of DNA, but each type of cell only “reads” the portions of DNA that are relevant to its own function. In biology, this is referred to as the unique genetic expression of each cell. | |
translate mutations of DNA | ||
cell potency | •Potency describes the ability of stem cells to differentiate into specialized cells. •A stem cell is an unspecialized cell that can divide without limit as needed and can, under specific conditions, differentiate into specialized cells. Stem cells are divided into several categories according to their potential to differentiate. • totipotent • pluripotent • multipotent •olgiopotent • | |
electrophoresis | Gel electrophoresis is a technique used to separate DNA fragments (or other macromolecules, such as RNA and proteins) based on their size and charge. Electrophoresis involves running a current through a gel containing the molecules of interest. Based on their size and charge, the molecules will travel through the gel in different directions or at different speeds, allowing them to be separated from one another. | |
alles | • Alleles are an alternate or variant form of a gene present in an individual. | |
––––––––– is seen when more than two alleles are present. The blood group system in humans has three alleles, that are A, B and O | Multiple allelism is seen when more than two alleles are present. The blood group system in humans has three alleles, that are A, B and O | |
Incomplete dominance | Incomplete dominance is when the phenotype is expressed partially by two different alleles. It presents as a “blend” of the two characteristics, such as parents with red and white flowers producing offspring with pink flowers. | |
The law of segregation states that each pair of alleles segregate randomly during gametogenesis (gamete formation). This means that each gamete (sex cell) receives one copy of a gene (an allele). They later reunite or combine randomly during fertilization. This way, the offspring acquires one allele from each of the parents. | ||
The law of independent assortment states that the different traits or pairs of traits assort independently from another pair during the gamete formation. | ||
Mono hybrid inheritance | Monohybrid inheritance is the cross between two parents with different alleles for a single trait. The monohybrid ratio reflects 3 dominant phenotypes for a single trait and 1 recessive phonotype for a single trait. | |
Autosomal chromosomes | Humans contain 23 pairs of chromosomes; one pair, the sex chromosomes, determines the sex of an individual; the remaining 23 pairs, called autosomal chromosomes, determine all other genetic traits. | |
Scientific Reasoning | ||
Double Blind | • A double-blind experiment is an experiment where both the researcher and subject are unaware of the treatment that a test subject receives. | |
Dependent Variable | The dependent variable is the variable whose change is being manipulated as the independent variable is changed. Thus, the dependent variable is dependent on changes in the independent variable. | |
Control Group | A control group acts as a baseline in an experiment to which comparisons can be made | |
Hypothesis | • A hypothesis is an explanation for observed phenomena. | |
Independent Variable | The independent variable is the variable that is controlled during an experiment to see how it influences the dependent variable | |
Conclusion | • A conclusion is obtained after a scientist analyzes all of his or her data after conducting an experiment. It is a statement of whether the evidence collected during the experiment supports or disagrees with the original hypothesis. | |
Control Variable | • Control variables are unchanged during an experiment so that a scientist can determine how other variables change relative to it. It is important to have control variables because they help ensure that experimental results occur because of changes in other variables | |
Where is the Independent variable located on a graph? | X axis |