Untitled Notes

Introduction to Virtue Ethics

Virtue ethics addresses the question: How do we become better people?
The concept suggests that moral character and virtues guide ethical behavior rather than strict rules.
It introduces the idea that individuals practicing virtue ethics may have different interpretations of what virtue is and where the middle ground lies.

The assessment of moral actions can be context-dependent.
Different perceptions around parenting show how moral judgments can vary based on individual circumstances, suggesting no absolute standards apply universally.
Example: The reaction to a child’s bad behavior may differ from parent to parent, highlighting the importance of personal frame of reference.

Ethical pluralism allows for differing moral perspectives without falling into relativism, which may imply that any belief is equally valid.
Ethical pluralism recognizes the complexity of moral situations and affirms that disagreements can exist among virtuous individuals without rendering one inherently correct or incorrect.

The distinction between 'right' and 'good' can be clarified as follows:
- Right refers to moral correctness associated with actions (normative): "You did the right thing."
- Good describes outcomes or states of affairs (descriptive): "What you did led to a good outcome."
A good outcome can arise from a wrong action and vice versa.
- Example: A person may act unethically (wrong) but through sheer luck or unforeseen consequences, the outcome is beneficial (good).

Consequentialism: A moral theory where the outcomes of actions determine their moral worth, as opposed to deontological ethics, which focuses on the morality of the act itself.
Utilitarianism: The most prevalent form of consequentialism positing that good is defined by maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain across a population.
- Act Utilitarianism: Evaluates each act individually based on its consequences.
  - Example: Killing a wealthy relative for inheritance to build hospitals may be condoned by some utilitarian perspectives if it benefits many.
- Rule Utilitarianism: Establishes general rules to maximize happiness when followed.
  - Example: Traffic laws are observed to ensure safety; they result in the greatest good when adhered to by everyone.

Kant introduces the categorical imperative, which acts as an absolute moral law dictating that one must act according to maxims that can be universally applied.
- Maxims must be generalizable and should not lead to contradictions.
Example: Making promises only when convenient would lead to the breakdown of the very concept of a promise if universalized.

Autonomy is a key consideration, defined as self-governance. It emphasizes respecting individuals as rational beings capable of making their own choices.
Any action that undermines a person's autonomy is morally impermissible.
Example scenarios illustrate the principle of autonomy, such as restrictions placed on individuals based on their competence to make informed choices.

Normative dominance states that moral norms supersede other types of norms (e.g., etiquette). Moral imperatives take precedence over societal politeness.
Impartiality insists that unless a good moral reason exists, one should treat individuals equally within moral frameworks.

Agent-relative reasons argue that individual responsibilities may differ based on personal relationships and commitments.
Agent-neutral theories, such as utilitarianism, hold that each individual's well-being is of equal moral value, regardless of personal connections.

Consider scenarios where ethical obligations conflict with practical duties, such as a healthcare professional balancing patients' rights against institutional policies.
Through the lens of care ethics, the relational aspect of moral choices emphasizes empathy and responsibility in caregiver-patient dynamics.
The depth of care ethics comes from recognizing the complexities inherent in providing care in challenging moral situations, promoting relationships over rigid adherence to rules.

Informed consent aims to respect patient autonomy by ensuring individuals understand procedures and potential outcomes prior to agreeing to treatment.
Issues arise when patients are not adequately informed or overwhelmed by information, leading to difficulties in truly obtaining consent.
Examples: Informed consent for surgeries, participation in clinical trials, and challenges in communicating complex medical information.

The social contract and veil of ignorance concepts suggest designing a just society where individuals establish fair rules without knowledge of their own characteristics.
Justice principles derived from Rawls highlight the importance of ensuring everyone's rights while also addressing inequalities sensibly.

Each ethical theory, whether consequentialist, deontological, virtue ethics, or care ethics, contributes a unique perspective on how one should approach moral dilemmas and decision-making in real-world situations.
Understanding these theories' frameworks aids in navigating not only ethical theory discussions but also everyday ethical challenges that arise in various contexts, such as healthcare, personal relationships, and broader societal issues.