CH 7 APush
Chapter 17 Outline
The Farmers’ Revolt
Small farmers faced economic insecurity where sharecropping locked millions of tenant farmers into poverty
Interruption of cotton exports during Civil War expanded production in India, Egypt, and Brazil
Declining prices threw millions of farmers into debt threatening land loss
Farmers who had mortgaged property to purchase supplies faced losing their farms → believed that plight came from high freight rates of railroad, high interest rates for loans, and federal fiscal policy
Through the Farmers’ Alliance, farmers tried to remedy the situation
Started off by trying to improve rural conditions through cooperative financing and marketing of crops
Then proposed that federal government create warehouses where farmers could store goods before sale
Using crops as collateral, government would issue loans at low interest rates
The People’s Party
Alliance evolved into the People’s party → sought to speak for all producing classes; major in South and West
Embarked towards community organization and education → published pamphlets on social/economic issues, created 1000 newspapers, and sent traveling speakers throughout America
Last expression of America as a commonwealth of small producers with freedom dependent on productive property
Although they used nineteenth century language, they were not a backwards movement → embraced railroad, telegraph, and national market looking for fed regulation
Promoted farmers using modern scientific methods of cultivation; believed government could go beyond partisan conflict to promote the greater good
The Populist Platform
Populist platform of 1892 at the Omaha convention was written by Ignatius Donnelly of Radical Republican Minnesota
Spoke of a nation on the verge of moral, political, and material ruin from corruption
Put forth proposals to restore democracy and economic opportunity
Direct election of US senators, government currency control, graduated income tax, low-cost public financing for farmers, recognition of labor unions
Called for public ownership of railroads guaranteeing farmers cheap access
The Populist Coalition
In some southern states, Populists made remarkable efforts to unite black and white farmers on a common political and economic program
Obstacles included heritage of racism, legacy of Civil War, most whites were landowning farmers while blacks were tenants and sharecroppers
Unwelcome in southern Farmers’ Alliance, blacks tried to from Colored Farmers’ Alliance
Tried organizing strike in SC, AK, and TX but violently suppressed by local authority
Southern white Populists’ racial attiutdes not different from non-Populists → still recognized need to loosen Democratic hold, insisted that blacks and whites unite
While many blacks refused to abandon Lincoln, others were attracted by Populists
Although Populists won NC in 1894 for second Reconstruction, Democrats mostly fended them off everywhere else using racism
Populists engaged thousands of reform women from farm and labor backgrounds
Some became prominent organizers, campaigners, and strategists
Mary Lease was famous for rallying farmers to cause chaos
1890s → referendums in CO and ID approved extending suffrage to women
The Government and Labor
Severe depression in 1893 led to conflict between capital and labor → opportunity for Populist vote
Employers brought state authority to protect economic power and put down threats
1892 → governor of ID declared martial law and sent federal troops to mining regions to break strikes
1894 → Federal soldiers dispersed several hundred unemployed men under Jacob Coxey demanding economic relief; workers in Pullman, Illinois protested wage reductions
American Railway Union announced that members boycotted all Pullman trains
AG Richard Olney obtained a federal injunction ordering strikers to work
Strike collapsed when Union’s leaders were jailed for contempt of court violating the order
In re Debs → Supreme Court confirmed sentences and approved injunction use
Populism and Labor
1894 → Populists made efforts to appeal to industrial workers; Populists senators supported Coxey and Governor Waite of Colorado sent militia to protect miners
In presidential elections, millions of voters abandoned Dem. Grover Cleveland
Populist vote increased in rural areas but not in urban areas as they didn’t care about Populist core issues and demanded higher prices for farm goods
Revivalist atmosphere of Populist gatherings were alien to immigrant and Catholic industrial workers
Urban voters shifted to Republicans claiming that raising tariff rates would restore prosperity protecting manufacturers and industrial workers; gained 117 House seats
Bryan and Free Silver
1896 → Democrats and Populists joined to support William Jennings Bryan for president
Bryan won nomination after delivering a speech crystallizing farmers’ pride and grievances
Called unrestricted minting of silver money condemning gold standard biblically
Throughout the 1800s, the hard vs. soft money from Jackson played a role in politics
Bryan’s demand expressed that increasing the amount of currency in circulation would raise what farmers received for crops easing debt pay-off
A devout man, Bryan was influenced by the Social Gospel and tried to apply teachings of Christ to uplift the people of the US
Championed vision of government helping ordinary Americans with progressive income tax, banking regulation, and union rights
Populists were initially against Bryan but realized they could not secure victory alone
Bryan spoke on a nationwide tour rallying farmers and workers to his cause
The Campaign of 1896
Republicans hard countered arguing gold was the only honest currency; abandoning it would destroy business confidence and prevent depression recovery
Nominated William McKinley of Ohio who passed the protectionist McKinley Tariff
Election of 1896 is considered first modern election due to money spent by Republicans and efficiency of organization
Eastern bankers and industrialists gave millions to the Republican party
McKinley raised $10 million, Bryan raised $300,000
While McKinley was at home in Ohio addressing crowds of supporters, manager Mark Hanna created a powerful national machine flooding country with pamphlets, posters, etc.
Results revealed a sectionally divided nation → Bryan carried the South and West with 6.5 million votes, McKinley swept Northeast and Midwest with 7.1 million
Republican electoral 271 vs. Democrat 176
Party politics seemed to mute class conflict rather than reinforcing it
Industrial America voted solidly Republican reinforced by prosperity in 1897
McKinley’s victory shattered the political stalemate since 1876
During presidency, Republicans passed the Dingley Tariff of 1897 raising tariff rates higher than ever before
Passed Gold Standard act of 1900
Not until depression of 1932 would Democrats become a major party again
Election of 1896 was the last with extremely high voter turnout (90% of eligible voters)
South was solidly Democratic and North was overwhelmingly Republican with a few swing states
Voter participation experience downhill trend but rose again from 1930s-1960s
The Redeemers in Power
Failure of Southern Populism opened door for a new racial order
Coalition of merchants, planters, and entrepreneurs dominating politics post-1877 known as Redeemers trying to undo Reconstruction
Budget cuts, taxes reduced, and public facilities closed
LA spent so little on education that illiteracy increased from 1880-1900; gap between spending on black and white students increased
New laws authorized arrest of any person unemployed and increased petty crime penalty
As prison population rose, prisons rented out prisoners (usually black) to businessmen
Conditions in cheap, involuntary labor were barbaic with high death rates; KoL made it a large issue in the South
The Failure of the New South Dream
During the 1880s, Henry Graddy promoted the New South in prosperity and industrial expansion → while planters, merchants, and industrialists succeeded, the region sank deeper into poverty
Some industries like furniture and cig. manufacturing developed but made little contribution to regional economic development
Southern cities were mainly export centers for cotton, tobacco, and rice
Black Life in the South
Black farmers suffered the most → Upper South econ dev. offered mines, iron furnaces, and tobacco factories; Rice kingdom planters unable to acquire money necessary for repairs
Most plantations fell to pieces and blacks acquired land for self-sufficient farming
Most of Lower South → African-Americans owned less percentage of land in 1900 as compared to Reconstruction
Southern cities → network of institutions created post-Civil War like colleges, churches, etc. were foundational for diverse urban black growth
Supported black middle class but market was rigidly along racial lines
Black men excluded from supervisory positions in factories and workshops
Women were domestic servants
The Kansas Exodus
Some blacks sought a way out through emigration from the South → 1879-1880, 40,000-60,000 blacks migrated to Kansas
Name Exodus came from biblical account indicating deep longing for freedom
Promoters of the exodus distributed flyers picturing Kansas as an idyllic land
Lacking capital for farming, most black migrants were unskilled laborers in towns
Most blacks had little alternatives but to stay in the South → real job expansion happening in North but employers refused to offer jobs to blacks; immigrants instead
The Transformation of Black Politics
Neither black voting nor officeholding ended in 1877 → Blacks cast ballots in large numbers; Democrats consolidated redrawing district lines and using appointment instead of election in major black counties
A few blacks served in Congress between 1880 and 1890 → political opportunities more restricted
For black men of talent and ambition, business, law, and church were bettr opportunities than politics
National Association of Colored Women of 1896 brought together local and regional women’s clubs for women’s rights and racial change; activists from small urban middle class
Aided poor families, offered home life lessons, battled gambling and drinking, etc.
The Emergence of Booker T. Washington
Prominent black leaders emphasized economic self-help rather than political agitation
Booker T. Washington’s 1895 speech “Atlanta Compromise”
Urged blacks to adjust to segregation and abandon agitation for civil and politcal rights
Washington emphasized obtaining farm or skilled jobs rather than citizenship for blacks
Became the head of Tuskegee Institute in Alabama focusing on job training
Washington repudiated abolitionist tradition of full equality; advised seeking assistance of white employers who would prefer a calm black labor force over unionized whites
Washington’s rise rested on success in channeling aid from North to Tuskegee but support in black community also rose from sense that frontal assault on white power was not feasible
The Elimination of Black Voting
From 1890-1906, every southern state enacted laws attempting to eliminate black vote
To get around 15th Amendment, legislatures drafted laws appearing color blind but weren’t
Used poll tax, literacy tests, and requirement of voter to understand the state constitution
6 states adopted grandfather clause exempting new requirements for those with white descendants able to vote pre-Civil-War; Supreme Court invalidated this in 1915
Some white leaders viewed disenfranchisement as purifying politics; numerous poor whites lost voting rights
By 1840, 3% of adult black southerners were registered to vote; result of Northern help
1891 → Senate defeated proposal for federal protection of black voting rights
Supreme Court approved almost all disenfranchisement laws; Fourteenth Amendment almost never enforced
Southern congressmen had far more power than small electorates warranted
The Laws of Segregation
1890s saw the imposition segregation; it existed informally since pre-Civil-War
1883 Civil Rights Cases, Supreme Court invalidated Civil Rights Act of 1875 outlawing public racial discrimination
1896 Plessy v. Ferguson → Court approved state laws requiring separate facilities for whties and blacks
Arose in LA where legislature required railroad companies separate cars for blacks
Citizens Committee of black residents in New Orleans challenged the law and test case Homer Plessy refused conductor’s order to move
Committee hired Albion Tourgee who waged war against KKK in NC
7-1 decision, Court upheld LA law arguing facilities were separate but equal
Segregation and White Domination
States reacted to Plessy by passing racial segregation laws for daily life; facilities for blacks were nonexistent or significantly worse
Segregation was one part of white domination where disenfranchisement, unequal economic status, and inferior education reinforced each other
Ensured that whites held the upper hand; blacks only in white railroad cars as servants
Racial behavior arised → blacks had to wait until whites had been served, couldn’t raise voice and gave way on streets
Also affected Chinese laborers and black, Hispanic, and Native American children
The Rise of Lynching
Blacks who sought to challenge the system faced violent reprisal; 1883-1905, 50 blacks lynched (murdered by a mob)
By mid-century, total victims reached 4,000+; some occured at night while others displayed; law enforcement turned their cheek
Many victims were posthumously accused of raping a white; white southerners considered preserving female purity as justice for extralegal vengeance
Charge was usually a lie and activists like Ida B. Wells wrote essays condemning lynchings
Widespread lynching of individuals for so long was unknown elsewhere
Politics, Religion, and Memory
Dream of racial equality from Reconstruction soon abandoned; Civil War was a family quarrel where blacks played no part
Gave legitimacy to efforts to eliminate black voting
Reduced blacks to second-class citizenship erecting monuments to slavery (Lost Cause)
Religion central to mythology offering way of white southerners to accept defeat without abandoning supremacy
Southern churches kept values of Old South alive; Northern and Southern school history books emphasized happy slaves and evil Reconstrution; black soldiers forgotten
The New Immigration and the New Nativism
1890s → 3.5 million newcomers entered the US seeking jobs; 50%+ came from Italy, Russia, and Austria-Hungary
New immigrants described by nativists as distinct races of a lower civilization
Explained willingness to work for substandard wages and supposed tendency towards criminality
Immigration Restriction
New immigration triggered resurgence of racial nationalism across the globe
Critics of immigration warned about declining birth rate among native women
Central to building political communities as older sources of unity splintered from industrialization
Many Americans aggrieved by economic changes sought to re-create a sense of belonging
Restricting immigration was a way to determine who was fit to be American → Social Darwinism
1894 → Immigration Restriction League spread rapidly nationwide
Distincted between old and new immigrants blaming new ones for urban crime and mass unemployment
Insisted newcomers from southern and eastern Europe were incapable of democratic intelligence
Nirthern and western states adopted the secret ballot to protect voters’ privacy and limit illiterate participation
Chinese Exclusion and Chinese Rights
Boundaries of nationhood slowly contracted → both parties had vicious opinions against Chinese immigrants
1875 → Congress excluded female Chinese immigration; CA congressman Horace Page insisted it was to bar chinese prostitutes
Kept out the wives and daughters of men and those in the country
1882 → Chnese Exclusion Act broke the Reconstruction Burlingame Treaty temporarily excluding all Chinese immigrants from entry
First time that a race had been used to exclude the country from an entire people
Congress renewed the restriction in 1892 and made it permanent in 1902
Chinese in the US required to register with government and carry ID or be deported
First time photo was used for ID was for enforcing Chinese exclusion
2012 → Congress passed a Resolution of Regret apologizing for the laws and acknowledging their role in racism
1930 → Number of Chinese was just 75,000
West Coast → suffered discrimination and mob violence and thousands of Chinese were expelled from towns and mining camps
Chinese fought these measures legally and illegally → Refused to carry ID protesting the “dog tag” law
Obtained fraud documents with paper identities to be a family member of a US citizen
After SFO earthquake of 1906, some claimed that citizenship papers were destroyed
Chinese victims sued local governments when rights were violated
Forced state and federal courts to define the reach of the 14th Amendment
1885 Tape v. Hurley → CA Supreme Court ordered SFO to admit Chinese to public schools
State legislature created segregated schools but Mary and Joseph Tape insisted their daughter be allowed to attend the neighborhood school
1886 Yick Wo v. Hopkins → Court ordered SFO to grant licenses to Chinese-operated laundries
1898 United States v. Wong Kim Ark → Supreme Court ruled that 14th Amendemnt awarded citizenship to children of Chinese immigrants on American soil
1893 Fong Yue Ting v. United States → Court authorized feds to expel Chinese aliens without due process of law
1904 → Court used Fong Yue Ting upholding law barring anarchist immigration
1875 → Congress barred white prostitutes and convicted felons from entering the country
The Rise of the AFL
Social movments redefined objectives to be realized in the new economic and intellectual framework
Demise of Knights of Labor and rise of American Federation of Labor reflected shift
AFL claimed unions should not seek economic independence but devote itself to negotiating with employers for higher wages and better conditions
1890s → Union membership rebounded but labor movement became less inclusive
AFL restricted membership to skilled workers excluding nearly all blacks, women, and new European immigrants
Membership centered on printing and building construction dominated by small businesses
Little presence in industries like steel, rubber, or large-scale factories dominating the economy
The Women’s Era
1890s launched the women’s era where women enjoyed larger opportunities than before for economic independence and played a larger role in public life
Almost every state adopted laws giving married women control over wages, property, and signing contract
5 million women worked for wages in 1900; generation of college-educated women beginning to take place in professional positions
1874 → Women’s Christian Temperance Union was the era’s largest female organization
Implemented a comprehensive program of economic and political reform including suffrage
Center of gravity of feminism shifted toward an outlook keeping with prevailing racial and ethnic norms
Continued to argue for women’s equality, employment, education, and politics
Native-born middle-class women claimed themselves as educated members of a superior race
New generation of suffrage leaders suggested that educational and other voting qualifications did not conflict with the movement’s aims as long as it equalized men and women
Carrie Chapman Catt (president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association) suggested extending the vote to native white women would help counteract the growing power of foreigners in the NOrth and a second Reconstruction in the South
Elitism was reinforced when advocates blamed the slum vote for the defeat of a women’s suffrage referendum in CA
1895 → NAWSA held annual convention in a segregated city
1903 → association met in New Orleans and listened to speeches denouncing blacks as barbarians
Organized movement for women’s suffrage made peace with nativism and racism
The New Imperialism
For most of world history until 1890, the US was a second-rate power
1880→head of Ottoman empire closed embassy in the US
Post-1870, a new imperialism arose with Europe and Japan at the top including Belgians, British, and French
European countries consolidated holds in Africa and British and Russians sought to control Central Asia
Justification for imperialism was bringing modern civilization to backward peoples
Would be taught Western values, labor practices, and Christianity → eventually given right of self-government
American Expansionism
1890s marked a turning point in America’s relationship with the rest of the world
Americans aware they were emerging as a world power
Until now, expansion only took place on the North American continent and since the Monroe Doctrine, many Americans considered Western Hemisphere American
Constant talk of annexing Cuba and the DR but never happened
Last acquisition before 1890s was Alaska from Russia by SoS William H. Seward
Most Americans looked overseas to expand trade not territory → agricultural and industrial production could not be entirely absorbed at home
1890 → Singer Sewing Machines and Standard Oil aggressively marketed products abroad
Business leaders insisted on greater access to foreign customers and middle-class Americans were increasingly desirous of foreign clothing and food
The Lure of Empire
One group of Americans who spread national influence overseas were religious missionaries
Inspired by Dwight Moody, the Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions sent 8,000 missionaries across the globe
Offered employment to those without opportunities at home including blacks and women
Our Country - Josiah Strong: sought to update idea of manifest destiny → Anglo-Saxons should now spread institutions and values to inferior races
Alfred Mahan's The Influence of Sea Power upon History argued that no nation could prosper without a large fleet of trade ships and a powerful navy
Arguments influenced James Blaine serving as SoS under Benjamin Harrison
Hawaii already closely tied to US exempting imports of its sugar from tariff duties and allowing establishment of Pearl Harbor
HI economy dominated by American sugar plantations employing native islanders, Chinese, Japanese, and Filipinos
A group of American planters organized a rebellion overthrowing Queen Liliuokalani
Harrison tried to submit a treaty of annexation to Senate but Grover Cleveland withdrew it
July 1898 → US annexed Hawaiian Islands
Depression of 1893 heightened belief that more aggressive foreign policy was necessary to stimulate exports
Government and private organizations promoted unifying patriotism
Created Pledge of Allegiance, National Anthem, and Flag Day
New newspapers promoted nationalistic sentiments
“Yellow press” sold millions of copies a day mixing sensational crime with corruption and patriotic appeal
The Splendid Little War
Ten years of guerilla war followed the Cuban Revolt in 1868
Independence movement resumed in 1895 and their struggle won sympathy in the US
Demands for intervention escalated when an explosion destroyed the USS Maine in Havana Harbor killing 270
Yellow press blamed Spain and President McKinley asked Congress for declaration of war after Spain turned down a cease-fire
Congress agreed and adopted Teller Amendment claiming the US had no intention of annexing the island
War lasted 4 months with less than 400 American combat deaths → most decisive engagement took place in Manila Bay Philippines
American navy under Admiral Dewey defeated a Spanish fleet; soldiers stormed the shore as the first American combatants outside the Western Hemisphere
Americans won again in Santiago, Cuba
Roosevelt at San Juan Hill
Most highly publicized land battle took place in Cuba → charge up San Juan Hill led by Teddy Roosevelt
Roosevelt believed that war would reinvigorate national unity
Envisioned his unit as a cross section of American society with Ivy League athletes, cowboys, immigrants, and Indians; excluded blacks
Found that a black unit had preceded them at San Juan Hill which Roosevelt omitted in battle reports
Became a national hero and was elected governor of NY that fall and VP in 1900
An American Empire
With yellow press backing, war escalated to an imperial venture with United States owning a small overseas empire
McKinley convinced that US couldn’t return Philippines to Spain or give them independence
US acquired Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam
Before Cuban independence, McKinley forced them to recognize the Platt Amendment → authorized American military intervention at any time
Acquired permanent land lease including Guantanamo Bay
Platt Amendment passed the Cuban Congress but Cubans were disappointed
American interests had more to do with trade than natural resources or settlement
Puerto Rico and Cuba were gateways to Latin America where American naval and commercial power could be projected
Philippines, Guam, and Hawaii opened shipping routes to Japan and China
SoS John Hay announced Open Door Policy demanding European powers recently dividing China into commercial spheres of influence to grant access to Americans
Open Door only referred to free movement of goods, not people
The Philippine War
Cubans, Filipinos, and Puerto Ricans welcomed Americans to break Spain’s chokehold
Looked forward to access to American markets and hoped presence would put down rebellious movements
American determination to exercise control led to a rapid change in local opinion
Filipinos had been fighting Spain since 1896; after Dewey’s victory, leader Emilio Aguinaldo created a provisional government
Once McKinley decided to retain possession of the land, Filipinos turned against the US
The Philippine War was catastrophic lasting 4 years with both sides committing atrocities
Insurgents killed Filipinos cooperating with Americans
US Army burned villages and moved inhabitants into camps where thousands died to disease or torture
McKinley administration justified policies on grounds of civilizng the Filipinos
William Howard Taft (governor-general of Philippines in 1901) believed it would take a century to raise Filipinos to the American standard
Colonial administration expanded Philippine railroads, harbors, education, agriculture, and public health
American policies tended to serve the interests of local elites and put the rural population in poverty
Citizens or Subjects?
American proponents of empire agreed that domination of non-whites by whites was part of civilization’s progress
America’s entry into the ranks of imperial power sparked a debate over relationship among democracy, race, and citizenship
American system had no provision for permanent colonies
Right to self-government was one of the main principles of the DoI
In aftermath of Spanish-American War, nationalism, democracy, and freedom were more closely identified with white superiority
Leaders of both parties feared that colonized peoples could not be incorporated
Foraker Act declared Puerto Rico an insular territory where inhabitants were citizens of Puerto Rico, not US; Filipinos occupied similar status
Insular Cases from 1901-1904 held that Constitution did not fully apply to territories acquired by the US
Congress must recognize fundamental rights but otherwise could govern them as seen fit indefinitely
No taxation without representation and government based on consent of governed abandoned
Territories acquired in 1898 would follow different paths → Hawaii became a traditional territory and it citizens became Americans; admitted as a state in 1959
Philippines eventually achieved independence in 1946 and Guam was occupied until 1950
Congress extended citizenship to Puerto Ricans in 1917 and remains in political limbo
Drawing the Global Color Line
American racial attitudes had a global impact during the imperial age
Turn of the twentieth century was a time of global concern about immigration, race relations, and the white man’s burden
Chinese exclusion strongly influenced antii-Chinese laws adopted in Canada
These countries learned from the Reconstruction US that multiracial democracy was impossible
British writer James Bryce said African American suffrage was a huge mistake promoting corruption
Cited by Australian Commonwealth to justify “white Australia” and Union of South Africa adopted apartheid
Republic or Empire
Emergence of the US as an imperial power sparked intense debate
Opponents formed the Anti-Imperialist League uniting writers and social reformers believing American energy should be directed at home
Held meetings across the country and published the Liberty Tracts warning empire and democracy doesn’t work
1900 → Democrats nominated William Bryan against McKinley and opposed the Philippine War
Proponents of an imperial foreign policy also adopted freedom language
Senator Albert Beveridge claimed that American venture abroad brought a new day of freedom to the peoples of the world
Insisted that American trade should be with Asia, especially China
McKinley won a second term in 1900 with Roosevelt as his VP
US seemed poised to take its place as a global power
Led the world in industrial production; merger movement left broad economic sections under control of giant corporations
Politcal system stabilized
North and South achieved reconciliation while lines of racial exclusion (blacks segregation, Chinese exclusion, and Indian reservations) bounded freedom