Exploration and Colonization of America
Overview of European Exploration and Colonization of the Americas
Quest for Asia and Discovery of the New World
The search for a route to Asia and treasures continued into the next century, driven by adventurers seeking wealth.
Amerigo Vespucci: An Italian explorer who took several trips along the Southern Coast of the Western Hemisphere.
His accounts included vivid, albeit largely untrue, descriptions of the new world he explored.
His descriptions captured the interest of geographers and mapmakers.
In 1507, German mapmaker Martin Waldseemüller published Vespucci's accounts and proposed naming the new world "America" in Vespucci's honor, leading to the continents of the Western Hemisphere being named.
Spanish Explorers and Conquests
Spanish explorers sought fortune and glory in the New World.
Hernan Cortes: A prominent Spanish explorer who arrived in the New World in 1504.
Participated in the conquest of Cuba and later led an expedition to the Yucatan.
Heard stories of immense wealth among the Aztecs (Mexics) and set out with 500 men to find it.
Montezuma, the Aztec emperor, mistook Cortes for the returning god Quetzalcoatl.
Sent offerings, including food and a solid gold disk as large as a wagon wheel, to Cortes.
Cortes captured Montezuma in 1519, who paid a ransom for his release.
With alliances from tribes hostile to the Aztecs, Cortes conquered the Aztec nation with superior weaponry and diseases brought by the Spanish troops (smallpox, influenza, measles, typhus).
Spanish Expansion in North America
In 1565, Spanish monarch authorized Pedro Menendez de Aviles to establish settlements in North America.
He founded Saint Augustine, now in Florida, the first permanent European settlement in North America.
Spanish colonies were also established in the Caribbean, Central, and South America administered by viceroys.
True authority resided with the king, governed through the Council of the Indies in Spain.
Other notable explorations included:
1513: Vasco de Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean.
Juan Ponce de Leon explored Florida.
Ferdinand Magellan led the first circumnavigation of the globe in 1519; only one ship and 18 of 250 original sailors returned by 1522.
Ferdinand Magellan[a] (c. 1480 – 27 April 1521) was a Portuguese explorer best known for planning and leading the 1519–22 Spanish expedition to the East Indies. During this expedition, he discovered the Strait of Magellan, performed the first European crossing of the Pacific Ocean,[3] and made the first known European contact with the Philippines. Magellan himself was killed in battle in the Philippines in 1521, but his crew, commanded by Spanish navigator Juan Sebastián Elcano, completed the return trip to Spain in 1522, achieving the first circumnavigation of Earth in history.
Other European Powers in North America
As Spain's empire grew, other nations sought to establish their own colonies:
France:
1534: Jacques Cartier explored for a northwest passage to the Indies; claimed eastern Canada.
Samuel de Champlain explored the Saint Lawrence River, founded Quebec and Montreal.
The fur trade became a significant source of wealth.
Dutch:
1609: Henry Hudson explored and established trading posts, including New Amsterdam (later New York).
The Dutch West India Company controlled trading posts, focused on fur trade.
England:
John Cabot explored North America in 1497; England claimed parts of what later became the U.S.
Serious interest in the New World arose under Queen Elizabeth I.
English privateers targeted Spanish treasure fleets.
1585: Sir Walter Raleigh attempted colonization at Roanoke, with the settlement ending in mystery by 1591.
Joint-Stock Companies and the Virginia Colony
English merchants formed the London Company to sponsor colonization.
Charter from King James I allowed development of land from the coastline to the Pacific; named Virginia after Elizabeth I.
Settlement of Jamestown:
In 1607, three ships (Susan Constant, Goodspeed, Discovery) landed in Virginia.
Endured a harsh winter (the starving time); settlers relied on Native American assistance for survival.
Interactions with Powhatan tribes were complex; relations deteriorated due to English greed.
John Smith captured but spared by Pocahontas, daughter of Chief Powhatan, showcasing the political dynamics of the tribes.
Tobacco emerged as the colony's cash crop; it drove an influx of settlers and the establishment of large plantations.
The colony adapted to increasing demands for labor, laying the groundwork for slavery.
In 1619, the House of Burgesses was formed; it was a local assembly reflecting a degree of independence among settlers.
Religious and Political Development
Colonization was not solely for economic gain; many sought religious freedom.
Following the Protestant Reformation and disputes in England, many dissenters, including Puritans, sought to purify the Anglican Church.
A radical group, English Separatists, left for Holland but later obtained permission to settle in Virginia, sailing on the Mayflower and landing at Plymouth on December 21, 1620.
They signed the Mayflower Compact to form a civil government.
The Mayflower Compact (1620) was a brief agreement signed by 41 adult male passengers on the Mayflower in Provincetown Harbor. It created a civil government for Plymouth Colony through mutual consent, promising obedience to just and equal laws for the colony’s general welfare while pledging loyalty to King James I. It marked an early step toward self-government in America.
Encountered local tribes helped by English-speaking natives like Squanto and Samoset.
Massachusetts Bay and Puritan Migration
Massachusetts Bay Company formed in 1629; Puritans led by John Winthrop to settle in New England seeking religious purity.
Arrivals began a massive Puritan migration, establishing a community based on biblical principles, known as a "city upon a hill."
By the 1630s, the colonists grew to 20,000.
The colony operated under a semblance of self-governance, where local assemblies had considerable power.
Roger Williams challenged the religious orthodoxy; fled to establish Providence, Rhode Island, promoting religious freedom.
Thomas Hooker moved to Connecticut with followers and contributed to the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, promoting a separate governance model.
Development of Other Colonies
Maryland founded by George Calvert as a haven for Catholics; struggled with conflicts over religious diversity.
Carolinas evolved into two distinct economies:
North Carolina: Tobacco and naval stores as the primary commodities.
South Carolina: Rice and indigo cultivation due to the region's ideal conditions.
The New Netherlands surrendered to England in 1664, leading to the creation of New York.
Social tensions arose from the differences between Dutch settlers and English newcomers.
William Penn received land for Pennsylvania in 1681, establishing a place of religious tolerance for Quakers.
Economic and Cultural Evolution in the Colonies
The colonies developed distinct economies:
New England: Shipbuilding and fishing due to geographic advantages.
Middle Colonies: Agriculture and commerce focused on crops like wheat.
Southern Colonies: Larger plantations necessitated the importation of enslaved Africans.
The triangular trade evolved, connecting North America, Africa, and the West Indies despite violating Navigation Acts.
The Navigation Acts, primarily effective in the 17th and 18th centuries, were a series of laws designed to restrict England’s carrying trade to English ships. Aimed at encouraging English shipping for wartime needs, they became a form of trade protectionism during mercantilism.
The Great Awakening
A period of religious revival in the 1730s-40s, led by figures such as Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield.
Emphasized personal salvation and the need for a direct relationship with the divine.
Resulted in the founding of new educational institutions (Princeton, Dartmouth).
Encouraged diverse religious practices and an awareness of personal choice in faith.
Legislative Patterns in Colonial Governance
Government structures across the colonies varied (royal, corporate, proprietary), but common traits emerged:
Each colony had a governor representing higher authority, empowered to enforce laws.
Colonial assemblies exercised significant power, enacting local laws and managing financial matters.
Local assemblies often used financial leverage against governors to ensure their demands were met.
Development of a mercantile class in places like Boston illustrated economic shifts, challenging older power structures.