AP Exam Review

Unit 1: Geographic Foundations

  1. Different Types of Maps

    • Mercator: A cylindrical map projection. Distorts size near the poles but maintains accurate shapes. Useful for navigation (e.g., World map).

    • Robinson: A compromise projection, showing continents with less distortion. Used in many world maps.

    • Choropleth: Maps using shading to represent data (e.g., population density).

    • Isoline: Maps with lines that connect points of equal value (e.g., weather maps showing temperature or elevation).

    • Proportional Symbol: Symbols of different sizes represent the magnitude of a variable (e.g., circle size showing population in cities).

    • Cartograms: Maps that distort size or shape to show data (e.g., a population cartogram).

  2. GPS, GIS, Remote Sensing

    • GPS (Global Positioning System): A satellite system for determining precise location on Earth.

    • GIS (Geographic Information System): A system used to analyze spatial data, overlay maps, and create detailed geographic patterns.

    • Remote Sensing: Using satellite or aerial imagery to collect data about Earth's surface.

  3. Scale and Scale of Analysis

    • Scale: The relationship between the distance on a map and the actual distance on the ground.

    • Scale of Analysis: The level at which data is examined (e.g., local, regional, global).

  4. Census

    • A population count and survey, providing demographic data on residents.

  5. Regions

    • Formal: Defined by clear boundaries and specific criteria (e.g., political boundaries, climate zones).

    • Functional: Defined by a central node and its influence (e.g., metropolitan areas, service areas).

    • Vernacular/Perceptual: Defined by people's perceptions (e.g., "The South" in the U.S.).

  6. Distance Decay, Time-Space Compression, Globalization

    • Distance Decay: The decrease in interaction with increasing distance.

    • Time-Space Compression: The idea that advances in transportation and communication reduce the impact of distance.

    • Globalization: The increasing interconnectedness of the world.

  7. Environmental Determinism and Possibilism

    • Environmental Determinism: The belief that the physical environment dictates human behavior.

    • Possibilism: The idea that humans can adapt and make choices within the constraints of the environment.

  8. Site, Absolute Location, and Relative Location/Situation

    • Site: The physical characteristics of a place (e.g., landforms, climate).

    • Absolute Location: The exact location using coordinates (latitude/longitude).

    • Relative Location: The position of a place in relation to other locations (e.g., a country’s location next to an ocean).

  9. Toponyms

    • The study of place names and their origins.

  10. Sustainability

  • The ability to maintain or support processes over the long term, considering environmental, social, and economic factors.

Unit 2: Population and Migration

  1. Demographic Transition Model (DTM)

    • A model explaining the shift from high birth/death rates to low rates as a country develops. It has 4 (or 5) stages:

      • Stage 1: High birth and death rates, little population growth.

      • Stage 2: High birth rates, declining death rates, rapid population growth.

      • Stage 3: Declining birth rates, low death rates, moderate population growth.

      • Stage 4: Low birth and death rates, stable or declining population.

      • Stage 5 (sometimes): Birth rates fall below death rates, leading to population decline.

  2. Population Pyramids

    • Visual representations showing the distribution of various age groups in a population, typically broken down by gender.

  3. Epidemiologic Transition Model

    • Describes the changes in causes of death across different stages of the DTM.

  4. Thomas Malthus

    • A theory stating population growth will outstrip resources, leading to famine and poverty (though not universally accepted today).

  5. Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

    • The average number of children a woman is expected to have during her lifetime.

  6. Carrying Capacity

    • The maximum population that an environment can support.

  7. Dependency Ratios

    • The ratio of the dependent population (children and elderly) to the working-age population. Connects to DTM as countries transition through stages.

  8. Pro and Anti-Natal Policies

    • Pro-Natal: Policies encouraging higher birth rates (e.g., tax breaks, maternity leave).

    • Anti-Natal: Policies aimed at limiting population growth (e.g., China’s one-child policy).

  9. Density Measures

    • Arithmetic Density: The total population divided by the total land area.

    • Physiologic Density: The population per unit of arable land.

    • Agricultural Density: The number of farmers per unit of arable land.

  10. Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration

  • Basic principles about why and how people migrate, including that people move for economic reasons and usually over short distances.

  1. Push and Pull Factors

  • Push: Factors driving people to leave (e.g., war, famine).

  • Pull: Factors attracting people to a new location (e.g., job opportunities, safety).

  1. Refugees and Asylum Seekers

  • Refugees: People who flee their home country due to fear of persecution.

  • Asylum Seekers: People who seek protection in another country.

  1. Rural to Urban Migration

  • The movement from rural areas to cities, driven by industrialization, job opportunities, and urbanization trends.

  1. Intervening Obstacles and Opportunities

  • Factors that hinder or help migration (e.g., geography, political barriers, economic conditions).

  1. Step Migration

  • Migration that occurs in stages, moving from a small town to a larger city in steps.

  1. Brain Drain and Chain Migration

  • Brain Drain: The emigration of skilled workers from a country.

  • Chain Migration: Migration where people follow others to the same destination.

Unit 3: Culture and Society

  1. Cultural Traits

    • The elements that make up a culture, such as language, religion, and customs.

  2. Cultural Landscape

    • The visible imprint of human activity and culture on the landscape.

  3. Sequent Occupance

    • The idea that successive societies leave their mark on the landscape.

  4. Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces

    • Centripetal: Forces that unite a country or society.

    • Centrifugal: Forces that divide a country or society.

  5. Diffusion Types

    • Relocation: Spread through physical movement of people.

    • Contagious: Spread through proximity (e.g., disease, social media).

    • Hierarchical: Spread through a hierarchy, often starting with large cities.

    • Stimulus: The spread of an idea that is adapted to fit the new environment.

  6. Acculturation, Assimilation, Ethnocentrism, and Cultural Relativism

    • Acculturation: The process of cultural change due to contact with another culture.

    • Assimilation: The process where individuals or groups adopt the culture of another.

    • Ethnocentrism: Judging another culture based on the standards of one's own.

    • Cultural Relativism: The belief that no culture is superior to another.

  7. Syncretism

    • The blending of different cultural or religious beliefs.

  8. Creolization

    • The process of mixing two or more languages to create a new language.

  9. Taboo

    • A cultural or social prohibition against certain actions, foods, or behaviors.

  10. Language Divisions

  • Family: A large group of related languages (e.g., Indo-European).

  • Branch: A smaller group within a language family (e.g., Germanic within Indo-European).

  • Group: A set of related languages within a branch (e.g., Spanish and Italian in the Romance branch).

  1. Lingua Franca

  • A common language used for communication between speakers of different languages.

  1. Isogloss

  • A geographic boundary marking the limits of a linguistic feature (e.g., a regional pronunciation).

  1. Ethnic Religions

  • Religions associated with a particular ethnic group (e.g., Judaism, Hinduism).

  1. Universalizing Religions

  • Religions that seek to convert people worldwide (e.g., Christianity, Islam).

  1. Monotheistic Religions

  • Religions that believe in one god (e.g., Christianity, Islam, Judaism).