Exam Bio 1

Chapter 1: Anatomy and Physiology

  • Definitions:

    • Anatomy: Study of body structures.

    • Physiology: Study of how the body functions.

    • Homeostasis: Keeping a stable internal environment.

  • Branches of Anatomy:

    • Gross Anatomy: Study of structures visible to the naked eye.

    • Microscopic Anatomy: Study of structures that require a microscope.

    • Developmental Anatomy: Study of the changes in structure from conception to adulthood.

  • Branches of Physiology:

    • Cellular Physiology: Study of physiological processes within cells.

    • Systemic Physiology: Study of the functions of specific organ systems (e.g., cardiovascular physiology).

    • Pathophysiology: Study of the effects of diseases on organ systems.

  • Organization of the Body:

    • Levels of organization from least to most complex: Chemical, Cellular, Tissue, Organ, Organ System, Organismal.

  • 11 Systems of the Body:

    1. Integumentary System

    2. Skeletal System

    3. Muscular System

    4. Nervous System

    5. Endocrine System

    6. Cardiovascular System

    7. Lymphatic System

    8. Respiratory System

    9. Digestive System

    10. Urinary System

    11. Reproductive System

  • Feedback Loops:

    • Negative Feedback Loop: Mechanism that counteracts a change to bring the system back to its set point (e.g., body temperature regulation).

    • Positive Feedback Loop: Mechanism that enhances or intensifies a change (e.g., blood clotting).

  • Anatomical Terminology:

    • Regional Names: Terms describing specific areas of the body (e.g., thoracic, abdominal).

    • Directional Terms:

      • Superior: Above or closer to the head

      • Inferior: Below or farther from the head

      • Anterior (Ventral): Front

      • Posterior (Dorsal): Back

      • Medial: Closer to the midline

      • Lateral: Farther from the midline

      • Proximal: Closer to the point of attachment (for limbs)

      • Distal: Farther from the point of attachment

    • Planes:

      • Sagittal Plane: Divides body into right and left

      • Coronal (Frontal) Plane: Divides body into front and back

      • Transverse (Horizontal) Plane: Divides body into top and bottom

  • Body Cavities and Organs Within:

    • Dorsal Cavity: Contains the cranial cavity and vertebral cavity.

    • Ventral Cavity: Contains the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.

  • Organs Within Peritoneum vs. Retroperitoneal:

    • Peritoneal Organs: Organs located within the abdominal cavity (e.g., stomach, intestines).

    • Retroperitoneal Organs: Organs located behind the peritoneum (e.g., kidneys, pancreas).

  • Medical Imaging:

    • X-ray: A form of electromagnetic radiation used to visualize internal structures.

    • MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Imaging technique using magnetic fields and radio waves to visualize soft tissues.

    • PET (Positron Emission Tomography): Imaging technique that shows metabolic activity in tissues.

    • Ultrasound: Imaging sound waves to visualize soft tissues and organs.

    • CT (Computed Tomography): combines X-ray measurements taken from different angles

Chapter 2: Chemistry of the Body

  • Major Elements of the Body:

    • Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Calcium, Phosphorus, Sulfur, Potassium, Sodium, Chlorine, Magnesium, and Iron.

  • Structure of an Atom:

    • Composed of protons (positive), neutrons (neutral), and electrons (negative).

  • Atomic Number vs. Atomic Mass vs. Mass Number:

    • Atomic Number: Number of protons in an atom.

    • Atomic Mass: Weighted average of the masses of an element's isotopes.

    • Mass Number: Total number of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus.

  • Cations vs. Anions:

    • Cations: Positively charged ions (loss of electrons).

    • Anions: Negatively charged ions (gain of electrons).

  • Covalent Bonds: Bonds formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms.

  • Types of Chemical Reactions:

    • Synthesis, Decomposition, Single Replacement, Double Replacement, and Combustion.

  • pH Scale: Measures the acidity or alkalinity of a solution, ranging from 0 (acidic) to 14 (basic), with 7 being neutral.

  • Definitions:

    • Buffer: A solution that resists changes in pH when acids or bases are added.

    • Salt: An ionic compound formed by the neutralization of an acid and a base.

    • Acid: A substance that donates protons (H+ ions) in a solution.

    • Base: A substance that accepts protons or donates hydroxide ions (OH-) in a solution.

    • Cation: A positively charged ion.

    • Anion: A negatively charged ion.

    • Inorganic: Compounds that do not contain carbon-hydrogen (C-H) bonds.

    • Organic: Compounds that contain carbon-hydrogen (C-H) bonds.

    • Enzyme: A protein that catalyzes biochemical reactions.

  • Functional Groups of Organic Compounds:

    • Hydroxyl, Carboxyl, Amino, Phosphate, and Sulfhydryl groups.

  • Carbohydrates vs. Proteins vs. Lipids vs. Nucleic Acids:

    • Biomolecules:

      • Carbohydrates: Energy source.

      • Proteins: Build and repair tissues.

      • Lipids: Store energy.

      • Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA storing genetic info.

  • Monosaccharides vs. Disaccharides:

    • Monosaccharides: Simple sugars (e.g., glucose, fructose).

    • Disaccharides: Composed of two monosaccharides (e.g., sucrose, lactose).

  • Types of Lipids:

    • Fats, oils, phospholipids, and steroids.

  • Properties of Enzymes:

    • Catalysts that speed up reactions, are specific to substrates, and are affected by temperature and pH.

  • 5 Nitrogenous Bases:

    • Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), Thymine (T), and Uracil (U).

  • DNA vs. RNA:

    • DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): Double-stranded, contains thymine, stores genetic information.

    • RNA (Ribonucleic Acid): Single-stranded, contains uracil, involved in protein synthesis.