1. Learning and Memory Overview

• Learning and memory are interconnected processes.

  • Learning leads to the formation of memories.

  • We only know learning has occurred when we can recall memories.

  • Memories shape who we are and inform our understanding of the world.

  • Memories help predict future events.

  • Different types of memories are stored in distinct regions of the brain.

2. Learning

• Definition: The process of acquiring new information.

  • Involves modification of behavior through studying, practicing, and gaining experience.

3. Memory

• Definition: Capacity to store and retrieve information.

  • New connections between neurons are formed during learning which help us form memories (Engram).

• Memory formation involves:

  • Ability to store information.

  • Ability to retrieve stored information when needed.

• Key brain areas:

  • Hippocampus and medial temporal lobe.

• Example Case Study: Henry Molaison (HM).

4. Areas of the Medial Temporal Lobe

• Key structures include:

  • Hippocampus

  • Amygdala

  • Parahippocampal cortex

  • Entorhinal cortex

  • Perirhinal cortex

5. Stages of Memory Formation

5.1 Types of Memory Stages

1. Sensory Buffers:

   • Briefest memory; stores sensory impressions (e.g., iconic memory).

2. Short-Term Memory (STM):

   • Lasts longer than sensory buffer (up to 30 seconds without rehearsal).

   • Example: Remembering a phone number temporarily.

3. Long-Term Memory (LTM):

   • Lasts days, months, or even years.

   • Very large capacity.

   • Forgetting can be beneficial, filtering out unimportant information.

5.2 Types of Long-Term Memory (LTM)

• Declarative memory (explicit): Knowledge we can verbally express.

  • Includes:

    • Episodic memory: Personal experiences.

    • Semantic memory: Facts and knowledge.

• Nondeclarative memory (implicit): Knowledge demonstrated through behavior.

  • Includes:

    • Procedural memory: Skills and tasks.

    • Priming: Previous exposure influences response.

    • Classical conditioning: Learning through association.

6. Impact of Emotions on Memory

• Strong emotions can enhance memory formation:

  • Positive associations (e.g., music linked to first kiss).

  • Vivid recollections of traumatic events (e.g., September 11, 2001).

• Neurochemicals involved:

  • Epinephrine: Released from adrenal glands to enhance memory.

  • Norepinephrine: Released from the amygdala when emotional.

7. Stages of Memory Formation Processes

• Three key processes:

  1. Encoding: Transfer of information from sensory systems to STM.

  2. Consolidation: Transfer from STM to LTM.

  3. Retrieval: Accessing stored information from LTM.

8. Factors Affecting Long-Term Memory (LTM)

• False memories: Can occur due to interference.

• Memory recall: Can destabilize memories, making them alterable before reconsolidation.

• Reconsolidation of Memory: A process where memories are re-stored after retrieval.

9. Memory Disorders

9.1 Amnesia

• Severe memory impairment due to accidents/diseases.

  • Types:

    • Retrograde amnesia: Difficulty recalling old memories.

    • Anterograde amnesia: Difficulty forming new memories.

9.2 Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease

• Dementia: Group of conditions with memory loss and impaired judgment.

  • Symptoms: Forgetfulness, limited social skills.

• Alzheimer's Disease: Most severe form; characterized by profound memory impairment.

9.3 Korsakoff’s Syndrome

• Caused by chronic alcohol consumption leading to Vitamin B1 deficiency.

  • Symptoms include severe memory loss, anterograde amnesia, and confabulation (filling memory gaps with fabricated information).

10. Henry Molaison (HM) Contribution

• Underwent bilateral medial temporal lobectomy for epilepsy.

• Resulted in significant anterograde amnesia, illustrating the role of the hippocampus in memory formation.