Lecture Notes Flashcards

Foundations

• Natural rights: Life, liberty, property, happiness.
• Popular sovereignty: Authority rests with the people.
• Republicanism: Government's authority from the people.
• Social Contract: People obey laws in exchange for rights protection; can change government if it fails.

Types of Democracy

• Participatory: Emphasizes broad group involvement in policymaking.
• Elite: Disproportionate influence of elites on policymaking.
• Pluralist: Widespread political participation is essential.

Constitutional Compromises

• Virginia Plan: Bicameral legislature with proportional representation.
• New Jersey Plan: Unicameral legislature with equal state representation.
• Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise): Bicameral Congress (House based on population, Senate with equal representation).
• ⅗ Compromise: Slaves counted as 3/5ths of a person for representation.

Articles of Confederation Weaknesses & Constitutional Fixes

• Taxes: Congress could not collect taxes → Congress given power to levy taxes.
• Trade: Congress couldn't regulate trade → Federal government regulates interstate and international trade.
• Laws: 9/13 states needed to approve laws → Simple majority in Congress for most laws.
• Amendments: All 13 states had to agree → ⅔ of Congress and ¾ of states required.
• Executive: No executive branch → President created to enforce laws.
• Judiciary: No national courts → Supreme Court and federal court system created.

Powers

• Delegated: (\text{e.g., coin money, declare war})
• Concurrent: (\text{e.g., levy taxes, borrow money})
• Reserved: (\text{e.g., conduct elections, set up schools})

Amending the Constitution

• Proposal: By ⅔ vote in both House and Senate or by a national convention called by ⅔ of state legislatures.
• Ratification: By ¾ of state legislatures or by ¾ of special state ratifying conventions.

Types of Federalism

• Dual Federalism: Separate spheres for state and national government.
• Cooperative Federalism: States and national government work together.
• Fiscal Federalism: Federal funds influence state policy.
• New Federalism: Shift power back to the states.
• Categorical Grants: Specific purposes with tight federal control.
• Block Grants: Broad policy areas, states have flexibility.

Articles of the Constitution

• I: Legislative branch.
• II: Executive branch.
• III: Judicial branch.
• IV: Relations among the states.
• V: Process for amending the Constitution.
• VI: Supremacy of Constitution, national debt.
• VII: Ratification.

Federalism

• Advantages: Policy diversity, local responsiveness, increased participation, prevents tyranny.
• Disadvantages: Inequity, varying goals, inefficiency, conflicts, uneven distribution of funds.

Legislative Branch

• Senate: 6-year terms, 2 per state, 100 members, 30+ years old, filibuster common.
• House: 2-year terms, based on population, 435 members, 25+ years old, Speaker is powerful.

Powers of Congress

• ⅔ vote needed for: Treaty ratification, Amendment proposal, Impeachment conviction.
• Impeachment: House (majority), Trial: Senate (⅔).
• Revenue bills originate in the House.
• Treaties are approved by the Senate (⅔).
• Powers: Lay taxes, declare war, raise army.
• Article 1, Section 8: Powers of the legislative branch.
• Article 1, Section 9: Powers denied to Congress.
• To override a veto: ⅔ vote in Congress.
• To confirm a cabinet member: Majority vote in the Senate.

Legislative Processes

• Committee consideration after bill introduction.
• Pork Barrel Legislation: Funds for specific local projects.
• Logrolling: Agreement to vote for each other's bills.
• Standing Committees: Oversight, Veteran Affairs, Financial Services.
• Select/Special Committees: Temporary, specific purpose.
• Joint Committees: Members from both houses.
• Conference Committee: Reconcile House and Senate bills.
• Ways and Means: Taxation bills.
• 17th Amendment: Senators elected by citizens.

Spending

• Discretionary: Optional, e.g., defense.
• Mandatory: Guaranteed, e.g., Social Security, Medicare.

Redistricting

• Gerrymandering: Manipulating district boundaries for political advantage.
• Redistricting: Redrawing district boundaries.
• Reapportionment: Redistributing House seats based on census.
• Malapportionment: Unequal district populations.

Executive Branch

• Formal Powers: Commander in Chief, pardons, treaties, appointments.
• Informal Powers: Executive orders, agreements, signing statements, bully pulpit.
• Cabinet: Advises the President.
• 22nd Amendment: Term limits.
• 25th Amendment: Presidential succession.
• Federalist #70: Strong, unitary executive needed.

Bureaucracy

• Implements and regulates government policies.
• Discretionary authority due to expertise, gridlock, vague laws.
• Pendleton/Civil Service Reform Act: Merit-based system.
• Hatch Act: Limits political activity of federal employees.

Bureaucratic Agencies

• Cabinet Departments: Broad policy areas, e.g., Department of Defense, Education.
• Independent Agencies: Specific issues, e.g., NASA, EPA.
• Independent Regulatory Commissions: Regulate economy, e.g., FCC, SEC.
• Government Corporations: Services, e.g., USPS, Amtrak.

Checks and Balances

• Congress over Bureaucracy: Rewriting laws, appropriations, abolishing agencies.
• President over Bureaucracy: Appointments, executive orders, budget.
• Iron Triangle: Congressional committees, bureaucratic agencies, interest groups.
• Issue Network: Fluid, informal relationships.

Judiciary

• Lower courts created by Congress.
• Federal judges confirmed by Senate.
• 4 justices needed to hear a case.
• Writ of certiorari: Calls up a case.
• Amicus Curiae: "Friend of the court" briefs.
• Tie: Lower court decision stands.
• Judicial Review: Power to determine constitutionality.
• Article 3: Establishes judicial branch.
• Judiciary Act of 1789: Federal court structure.
• Marbury v. Madison: Established judicial review.
• Litmus Test: Single issue to evaluate nominees.
• Federalist #78: Judiciary is least dangerous branch.

Influences on Judicial Decision Making

• Ideology, precedent, stare decisis.
• Judicial Activism: Actively shape policy.
• Judicial Restraint: Defer to other branches.
• Strict Construction: Literal interpretation.
• Loose Construction: Flexible interpretation.

Economic Policy

• Federal Reserve lower interest rates if unemployment is high.
• Dual mandate: Price stability and maximizing employment.
• Monetary Policy: Controlled by Federal Reserve.
• Fiscal Policy: Created by Congress.
• Federal Deficit: Difference between revenues and expenditures.

Civil Liberties/Rights

• Civil Liberties: Freedoms government cannot take away.
• Civil Rights: Freedom from discrimination.

Amendments

• 1st: Freedom of expression.
• 2nd: Right to bear arms.
• 4th: Protection against unreasonable searches and seizures.
• 5th: Due process, self-incrimination.
• 6th: Right to fair trial.
• 8th: Against cruel punishment.
• 9th: Unenumerated rights.
• 10th: Powers reserved to states.
• 14th: Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses.
• 15th: Right to vote for African Americans.

Landmark Cases

• Engel v. Vitale: No mandatory prayer in school.
• Wisconsin v. Yoder: Amish can't be forced to attend school.
• Schenck v. U.S: Speech can be limited if it presents a clear and present danger.
• NYT v US: Strengthened the freedom of the press due to no prior restraint.
• McDonald v. Chicago: 2nd Amendment applies to states.
• Miranda v. Arizona: Informing rights.
• Exclusionary Rule: Illegally obtained can’t be used.
• Gideon v. Wainwright: Right to counsel.
• Plessy v. Ferguson: Separate but equal is constitutional (overturned by Brown v. Board).
• Brown v. Board of Education: Segregation is unconstitutional.
• Civil Rights Act of 1964: Eliminate racial discrimination.
• Title IX: Gender discrimination is illegal.
• Voting Rights Act of 1965: Banned discriminatory voting, literacy test.

Ideologies, Beliefs, and Polling

• Tracking Poll: Chart rise/fall in support.
• Benchmark Poll: Initial poll.
• Exit Poll: Election day.
• Straw Poll: Unofficial, unreliable.
• Push Poll: Provides negative information.
• Rational Choice: Voting based on self-interest.
• Political Socialization: Process of acquiring beliefs.
• Dealignment: Decline in party loyalty.
• Realignment: Shift in preferences.
• Internal Efficacy: Belief in one’s ability to participate.
• External Efficacy: Belief that the system responds.

Amendments

• 15th: No race restrictions voting.
• 19th: No gender restrictions voting.
• 23rd: D.C. residents can vote.
• 24th: Abolishes poll tax.
• 26th: 18+ can vote.

Elections

• Voter turnout greatest in presidential elections.
• States determine voter registration.

Electoral College

• Plurality wins votes (except ME, NE).
• Majority: Over 50%.
• Plurality: Most votes wins.

PACs and Campaign Finance

• Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002: Banned soft money, limited hard money.
• Citizens United v. FEC: Corporations/unions can spend unlimited money.
• PAC: Direct contributions, limited amount.
• Super PAC: Unlimited money, no coordination.

Journalism

• Agenda-setting/gatekeeper: Determines news.
• Horse race journalism: Focuses on campaign drama.

Cases

• Many listed previously

Foundational Documents

• Federalist 10: Factions.
• Federalist 51: Checks and balances.
• Federalist 70: Strong executive.
• Federalist 78: Judicial review.
• Brutus 1: Against ratification, federal government too powerful