670096304-Intro-to-Fin-Accounting-10th-Ed
Introduction to Financial Accounting Tenth Edition
Authors
Dempsey A: Professor of Accounting, University of Johannesburg. M Com (RAU), CA(SA)
Watson SA: Senior Lecturer: Centre for Accounting, University of the Free State. B Acc (Hons) (Accounting), CA(SA)
Joubert JA: Lecturer: Centre for Accounting, University of the Free State. B Com (UFS) B Com Hons(Accounting) Unisa, M Ed (UFS) PhD (UFS)
Britz PM: Associate Professor: Centre for Accounting, University of the Free State. MA(HES) (UFS), CA(SA)
Copyright Information
© 2019 LexisNexis (Pty) Ltd. Reprinted 2016, 2017, 2018 (twice)
First edition 1993; reprinted 1994, 1995, 1996
Second edition 1997; reprinted 1998
Third edition 1999; reprinted 2001 (three times), 2002
Fourth edition 2002; revised fourth edition 2003; reprinted 2004 (twice)
Fifth edition 2005; reprinted 2007
Sixth edition 2008
Seventh edition 2009
Eighth edition 2011
Ninth edition 2015
ISBN softcover 978 0 6390 0872 1; e-book 978 0 6390 0873 8
Preface
This book is written to address the theoretical aspects of accounting, specifically for students studying Accounting 1.
It emphasizes basic concepts, recognition, and information aspects, catering to students without an accounting background.
It discusses financial statements of various entities (sole traders, non-trading entities, partnerships, companies, and close corporations).
It covers financial management aspects and adheres to relevant legislation (Companies Act (Act 71 of 2008)), International Accounting Standards (IASs), International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRSs), and Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting issued March 2018.
The book aims to be a useful textbook and reference for accounting students and individuals from other disciplines.
Value-Added Tax (VAT) is ignored in the first seven chapters to simplify basic recognition and profit determination concepts.
Self-assessment questions and answers are included at the end of each chapter. Some chapters also have comprehension questions.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Basic concepts in accounting
Chapter 2: Transactions
Chapter 3: Ledger accounts
Chapter 4: The accounting cycle
Chapter 5: Trial balance
Chapter 6: The adjusting and closing process
Chapter 7: Presentation and disclosure of financial statements
Chapter 8: Applications of accounting systems
Chapter 9: Receivables and payables
Chapter 10: Inventories
Chapter 11: Cash and cash equivalents
Chapter 12: Non-current assets
Chapter 13: Non-trading entities
Chapter 14: Partnerships
Chapter 15: The company as an entity
Chapter 16: Company financial statements
Chapter 17: Statement of cash flows
Chapter 18: Head office and branches
Chapter 19: Budgets
Chapter 20: Analysis and interpretation of financial statements
Chapter 1: Basic Concepts in Accounting
1.1 The Role of Accounting
1.1.1 Introduction
Accounting involves collecting, processing, and presenting financial information to assist decision-makers.
It provides financial information to users, offering a general overview of an entity's financial position and performance through financial statements.
The objective of providing this information is central to accounting's purpose and evolution.
1.1.2 The History of Accounting
7500 BC: Tokens were used to represent inventories, indicating the concept of numbers.
3000 BC: Abacus invented in China.
Early Greek and Roman periods: Concepts of accounting existed; Athens minted coins by 575 BC; Roman families kept records of cash receipts and payments.
1000 AD: Italian merchants extended trade, and bookkeeping improved. Bills of exchange and clearing houses were established.
1300 AD: Giovanni Farolfi & Co. documented a complete double-entry bookkeeping system.
1494: Luca Pacioli published ’Summa de Arithmetica, Geometria Proportionalita’, the first document source of double-entry bookkeeping.
Pacioli's bookkeeping method:
Three things needed for business: cash, a good accountant, and good order.
Explained opening inventories but not closing inventories.
Used three account books: day book, journal, and ledger.
All transaction details to be written in the day book.
Described debt and credit in the journal and ledger.
15th Century: Emphasis on the going concern concept and accrual basis.
1673: The Code of Commerce in France required a balance sheet (statement of financial position) every second year.
1.1.3 Developments in the Field of Accounting
Countries followed their own Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) or Accounting Practice post-World War II.
The International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC) was established in 1973 to develop international accounting standards and later evolved into the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB).
The IASB is responsible for International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS).
1.1.4 Conceptual Framework
The IASB adopted the Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial Statements in 1989.
The Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting was adopted in March 2018.
Purpose of the Conceptual Framework:
Assist the IASB in developing IFRS Standards based on consistent concepts.
Help preparers develop consistent accounting policies when no Standard applies.
Aid in understanding and interpreting the Standards.
Conceptual Framework Chapters:
Objective of general purpose financial reporting.
Qualitative characteristics of useful financial information.
Financial statements and the reporting entity.
Elements of financial statements.
Recognition and derecognition.
Measurement.
Presentation and disclosure.
Concepts of capital and capital maintenance.
1.1.5 International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRSs)
IFRSs ensure financial statements are reliable and comparable.
IFRSs govern the recognition, measurement, and reporting of financial events.
IFRSs are accepted in South Africa without adjustments and include newly issued IFRSs and current International Accounting Standards (IASs).
1.1.6 Financial Statements
Financial statements are prepared and presented at least annually, directed at the information needs of users, and provide information about:
Economic resources
Claims against the reporting entity
Effects of transactions and other events.
They also include explanatory material about management’s expectations and strategies.
A complete set of financial statements includes:
Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income
Statement of changes in equity
Statement of financial position
Statement of cash flows
Notes on accounting policies and other explanatory notes and comparative information.
All financial statements must be presented with equal prominence (IAS1 par 11).
The term statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income includes:
Changes in revaluation surplus.
Re-measurements of defined benefit plans.
Gains and losses from translating foreign financial statements.
Gains and losses from investments in equity instruments designated or measured at fair value through other comprehensive income.
The effective portion of gains and losses on hedging instruments in a cash flow hedge and the gains and losses on hedging instruments that hedge investments in equity instruments measured at fair value through other comprehensive income.
For particular liabilities designated as at fair value through profit or loss, the amount of the change in fair value that is attributable to changes in the liability’s credit risk.
Changes in the value of the time value of options.
Changes in the value of the forward elements of forward contracts.
Insurance finance income and expenses from contracts issued within the scope of IFRS 17 Insurance Contracts; and.
Finance income and expenses from reinsurance contracts held (IAS 1 par 7).
1.1.7 Users and their Information Needs
Primary users include existing and potential investors, lenders, and other creditors who rely on general-purpose financial reports.
They also consider information from other sources, such as general economic conditions, political events, and industry outlooks.
1.1.8 The Objective of Financial Reporting
The objective is to provide financial information useful to existing and potential investors, lenders, and other creditors for making decisions about providing resources to the entity.
Decisions depend on expected returns, influenced by the entity’s economic resources, claims against it, and management’s efficiency.
1.2 Underlying Assumption
1.2.1 Going Concern
Financial statements are prepared assuming the entity is a going concern and will continue in operation for the foreseeable future without liquidation or materially curtailing operations (Conceptual Framework par 3.9).
1.3 Qualitative Characteristics of Financial Reports
Qualitative characteristics make financial information useful to users. Information must be relevant and faithfully represent what it purports to represent.
Usefulness is enhanced if information is comparable, verifiable, timely, and understandable.
Qualitative characteristics are either fundamental or enhancing.
1.3.1 Fundamental Characteristics
Include relevance and faithful representation.
(a) Relevance
Information is relevant if it can influence users' decisions, even if some users are already aware of it (Conceptual Framework par 2.6).
Relevance is enhanced by predictive value, confirmatory value, or both.
Materiality: Information is material if omission or misstatement could influence users’ economic decisions. Materiality is entity-specific, based on the nature or size of items relative to the entity’s financial reports (Conceptual Framework par 2.11).
(b) Faithful Representation
Financial reports must faithfully represent relevant transactions and events (Conceptual Framework par 2.12).
Requires a neutral depiction without bias (Conceptual Framework par 2.14).
Requires financial information to be free from errors and omissions but does not require perfect accuracy (Conceptual Framework par 2.15).
Use of reasonable estimates is allowed, provided reasoning and assumptions are clearly explained (Conceptual Framework par 2.19).
1.3.2 Enhancing Qualitative Characteristics
Include comparability, verifiability, timeliness, and understandability of financial information (Conceptual Framework par 2.23).
(a) Comparability
Users must be able to compare financial statements over time to identify trends and between entities to evaluate relative financial position, performance, and changes in financial position (Conceptual Framework par 2.24).
(b) Verifiability
Verifiability means that different knowledgeable, independent persons could reasonably reach consensus that a particular depiction is a faithful representation of the transactions and other events (Conceptual Framework par 2.30).
(c) Timeliness
Information must be available to decision-makers in time to influence their decisions. Usefulness decreases as information ages (Conceptual Framework par 2.33).
(d) Understandability
Clear and concise classification and presentation of information make it easier to understand. Exclusion of complex information results in incomplete and potentially misleading information (Conceptual Framework 2.34).
Financial reports are prepared for users with reasonable knowledge of business and economic activities who review and analyze information diligently (Conceptual Framework par 2.36).
1.4 Cost Constraint on Useful Financial Reporting
Benefits from financial information must exceed the cost of providing it (Conceptual Framework 2.40).
Costs are borne by shareholders (reduced returns) and users (analyzing and interpreting information).
Cost is a pervasive constraint for standard-setters, preparers, and users (Conceptual Framework par 2.42).
1.5 The Elements of Financial Statements
Elements directly related to financial position:
Assets
Liabilities
Equity
Elements directly related to performance measurement:
Income
Expenses
1.5.1 Assets
An asset is a present economic resource controlled by the entity as a result of past events (Conceptual Framework par 4.3).
An economic resource is a right that has the potential to produce economic benefits (Conceptual Framework par 4.4).
Three important aspects of an asset definition:
Right
Potential to produce economic benefits
Control
Right:
A right to produce economic benefits may be established by contract, legislation, or similar means (Conceptual Framework par 4.4).
Rights must have the potential to produce for the entity economic benefits beyond those available to all other parties (Conceptual Framework par 4.14–4.18) and also be controlled by the entity (Conceptual Framework par 4.19–4.25).
The right to use a public road does not equate to an asset of the entity because it needs to produce for the entity economic benefits beyond those available to other parties.
Individual rights can be accounted for as a single asset for accounting purposes (Conceptual Framework par 4.11).
Potential to Produce Economic Benefits:
The economic resource must have the potential to produce economic benefits, and it need not be certain or likely (Conceptual Framework par 4.14).
A right may meet the definition of an economic resource even if there is a low probability that it would produce economic benefits (Conceptual Framework par 4.14).
Economic benefits can result in:
Receiving contractual cash flows or another economic resource.
Exchanging economic resources with another party on favorable terms.
Producing cash inflows or avoid cash outflows.
Receiving cash or other economic resources by selling the economic resource.
Extinguishing liabilities by transferring the economic resource.
Control:
Control is the link between the resource and the entity.
An entity controls an economic resource if it has the ability to direct the use of the economic resource and obtain the economic benefits from it (Conceptual Framework par 4.22).
Only one party can control an economic resource at a given time. If one party controls an economic resource, no other party simultaneously controls that same economic resource.
Assets are grouped together in financial statements, with each group including a number of separate items.
Cash: coins, notes, and cash in the bank.
Furniture: rights stemming from legal ownership of chairs, tables, etc.
Receivables: the right to demand payment of amounts owing to the entity by its customers.
Inventory: types of merchandise on hand that are available for sale.
1.5.2 Liabilities
A liability is a present obligation of the entity to transfer an economic resource as a result of past events (Conceptual Framework par 4.26).
Criteria required before a liability exists:
The entity has an obligation.
The obligation is to transfer an economic resource.
The obligation is a present obligation that exists as a result of past events (Conceptual Framework (par 4.27).
Obligation:
An obligation is a duty or responsibility that an entity has no practical ability to avoid.
An obligation is always owed to another party or parties (Conceptual Framework par 4.30).
Transfer of Economic Resource:
The obligation must have the potential to require the entity to transfer an economic resource to another party (or parties) (Conceptual Framework par 4.37).
There only needs to be a potential obligation.
The degree of probability will influence the decision about what information to disclose about the liability (Conceptual Framework par 4.38).
Obligations to transfer an economic resource include obligations to:
Pay Cash
Deliver Goods
Provide Services
Obligations to exchange economic resources with another party on unfavorable terms.
Transfer other assets
Transfer an economic resource if a specified uncertain future event occurs
Issue a financial instrument if that financial instrument will obligate the entity to transfer an economic resource (Conceptual Framework par 4.39).
Present Obligation as a Result of Past Events:
The past events will however only result in a present obligation if:
the entity has already obtained economic benefits or taken an action; and
as a consequence, the entity will or may have to transfer an economic resource that it would not otherwise have had to transfer.
A present obligation may still exist even if the transfer of economic resources cannot be enforced until some point in the future.
Liabilities are grouped together (similarly to assets).
Borrowing refers to the obligation that arises when the entity borrows money from a financial institution.
Bank overdraft refers to the obligation when the entity uses the overdraft facility on its current account (cheque account) at a bank.
Payables refers to the total amount owing by the entity for goods and services bought on credit.
1.5.3 Equity
Equity is the residual interest in the assets of the entity after deducting all its liabilities (Conceptual Framework par 4.63).
Different classes of equity, such as ordinary and preference shares, may confer different rights to the equity holders.
The different classes of equity are subclassified in the statement of financial position.
In a corporate entity, funds distributed by shareholders, retained earnings and other components of equity may be shown separately.
The concept of Equity (“Owner’s interest”) essentially refers to the owner’s interest in the net assets, being assets less liabilities.
The assets of the entity essentially represent the value or economic resources of the entity. The economic resources, represented by the assets, do however not solely belong to the equity holders.
There are two groups with claims against these assets. The first group of claimants have rights to a portion of the assets and are referred to as liabilities. The second group of claimants, the owners of the entity, have a claim to the residual amount after the liabilities have been settled.
Equity = Assets – Liabilities or Assets = Liabilities + Equity (basic accounting equation)
1.5.4 Income
Income is increases in assets, or decreases in liabilities, that result in increases in equity, other than those relating to contributions from holders of equity claims (Conceptual Framework par 4.68).
Income is all the amounts earned by the entity for goods sold, services rendered and the use by others of entity assets.
Goods and services may be sold for cash or on credit. When goods or services are sold for cash, the cash asset increases. If the sales transaction was on credit, the receivables asset increases.
1.5.5 Expenses
Expenses are decreases in assets, or increases in liabilities, that result in decreases in equity, other than those relating to distributions to holders of equity claims (Conceptual Framework par 4.69).
Examples of expenses are salaries, telephone and electricity, etc.
1.6 Recognition of the Elements of Financial Statements
Recognition is the process of incorporating in the statement of financial position or the statement of profit or loss items that meet the definitions of elements and satisfy the criteria for recognition.
Only items that meet the definition of an asset, a liability or equity, income or expense are recognised in the financial statement(s) of an entity.
Not all items that meet the definition of one of those elements are recognized.
Items are only recognised if they would provide the users of financial statements with relevant information about the asset or liability and about any resulting income, expenses or changes in equity and are faithful representations of the asset or liability and of any resulting income, expenses or changes in equity (Conceptual Framework par 5.7).
Items therefore need to meet the definition of an element, provide relevant information and be a faithful representation before they can be recognised in the financial statements.
1.6.1 Relevance
While information about assets, liabilities, equity, income and expenses is relevant to users of financial statements, recognition of a particular asset or liability and any resulting income, expenses or changes in equity may not always provide relevant information.
Whether recognition of an item results in relevant information may be affected by factors such as, for example, low probability of a flow of economic benefits or uncertainty whether an asset or liability exists (Conceptual Framework 5.12).
Whether recognition provides relevant information is a combination of factors.
1.6.2 Faithful Representation
The recognition of a particular asset or liability does not only depend on the relevance of the information, but also on the faithful representation of that asset or liability (Conceptual Framework par 5.18).
Whether the recognition of an item results in faithful representation may be affected by factors such as measurement uncertainty, recognition inconsistency, presentation and disclosure of resulting income, expenses, changes in equity, etc.
Explanatory information about the uncertainties associated with an asset or liability may need to be provided in the financial statements.
Items meeting the recognition criteria of relevance and faithful representation are either depicted in financial statements as individual line items or in aggregation with other items (Conceptual Framework par 5.1).
Recognition of one item requires simultaneous recognition, de-recognition, or changes in the carrying amount of one or more other items (double entry principle).
Recognition:
Income: initial recognition of an asset, or a decrease in the carrying amount of a liability.
Expense: initial recognition of a liability, or a decrease in the carrying amount of an asset.
Asset: initial recognition of a liability, or the recognition of income.
Liability: initial recognition of an asset, or the recognition of an expense.
Initial recognition of assets or liabilities arising from transactions or other events may result in the simultaneous recognition of both income and related expenses. The simultaneous recognition of income and related expenses is known as the matching of costs with income.
The matching of costs with income is not an objective of the Conceptual Framework (Conceptual Framework 5.5).
1.7 Derecognition of Elements
Derecognition is the removal of all or part of a recognised asset or liability from an entity’s statement of financial position.
Typically occurs when an item no longer meets the definition of an asset or liability.
Assets are derecognised when the entity loses control of all or part of the recognised asset.
Liabilities are derecognised when the entity no longer has a present obligation for all or part of the recognised liability.
1.8 Measurement of the Elements of Financial Statements
Measurement is the process of determining monetary amounts at which elements of financial statements are recognised and carried in the statement of financial position and the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income.
Historical cost and current value are the measurement bases identified in the Conceptual Framework (Conceptual Framework par 6.2, 4.54).
1.8.1 Historical Cost
Historical cost measures monetary information of assets, liabilities, and related income and expenses based on the price of the transaction or other event that gave rise to them.
Historical cost of an asset includes consideration paid to acquire or create an asset plus relevant transaction costs.
Historical cost of a liability is the value of the consideration received or incurred to take on the liability less relevant transaction costs.
Deemed cost: When an asset is acquired or a liability is incurred as a result of an event that is not on market terms, it may not be possible to identify a cost.
The historical cost of assets may be updated to account for:
Consumption (depreciation or amortization)
Payments received
Impairment
Accrual of interest
The historical cost of liabilities may be updated to account for:
Fulfilment of part or all of the liability
The effect of events that increase the value of the obligation to transfer the economic
Accrual of interest.
1.8.2 Current Value
Unlike historical cost, current value of an asset or liability provides monetary information using information updated to reflect conditions at the measurement date (Conceptual Framework par 6.10).
Current value measurement bases include:
Fair value
Value in use for assets
Fulfilment value for liabilities and current cost
(a) Fair Value
Fair value is the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date (Conceptual Framework par 6.12). It may be determined by observing prices in an active market but It is, however, possible that no active market exists for the specific item.
(b) Value in Use and Fulfilment Value
Value in use applies the time value of money principle to present value (discount) the future expected cash flows, or other economic benefits, that an entity expects to receive from the use of an asset and its eventual disposal.
Fulfilment value is the present value of the cash, or other economic resources, that an entity expects to be obliged to transfer as it fulfills a liability.
(c) Current Cost
Current cost reflects current prices in the market in which the entity would acquire the asset or would incur the liability; it reflects conditions at the measurement date.
1.9 The Accounting Equation
Assets = Liabilities + Equity
Assets are the possessions of the entity that have monetary value.
Liabilities are the claims of payables against the assets of the entity.
Equity is the interest that the owner has in the assets of the entity.
The two sides of the equation must always be equal because someone must always have an interest in the assets of the entity.
1.10 Financial Statements
Financial statements make information available in a report.
Financial statements of a sole trader consist of a statement of profit or loss, a statement of changes in equity, and a statement of financial position.
A complete set of financial statements comprises:
(a) A statement of financial position as at the end of the period;
(b) A statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income for the period;
(c) A statement of changes in equity for the period;
(d) A statement of cash flows for the period;
(e) Notes, comprising accounting policies and other explanatory notes; and
(f) A statement of financial position as at the beginning of the earliest comparative period when an entity applies an accounting policy retrospectively or makes a retrospective restatement of items in its financial statements, or when it reclassifies items in its financial statements.
Presentation with equal prominence is required (IAS 1 par 11).
1.10.1 The Statement of Financial Position
Measure the elements assets, liabilities and equity, and to represent the financial position of the entity on a specific date.
Financial position is the wealth or means of the entity on a specific date and an exposition of the people with an interest therein.
A statement that reflects assets in the top section and equity and liabilities in the bottom section.
Total assets must equal total equity and liabilities.
The statement of financial position only reflects the financial position on a specific date.
1.10.2 The Statement of Profit or Loss
The primary objective of the entity is to:
earn a reasonable profit; and
at the same time, maintain a sound financial position.
Profit is the excess income earned over the expenses incurred to generate that income.
The profit of the entity for a specific period is calculated in the statement of profit or loss.
1.10.3 The Statement of Changes in Equity
This statement is prepared to show the changes in equity.
If the owner withdraws part of his capital from the entity for private use, the amount of the drawings decreases equity.
1.11 General Features
IASB issues IFRSs and IASs; IAS 1 amended in June 2011, effective for annual periods beginning on or after July 1, 2012, including eight general features.
1.11.1 Fair Presentation and Compliance with IFRSs
Financial statements shall present fairly the financial position, financial performance and changes in financial position of an entity.
Fair presentation requires faithful representation of the effects of transactions and other events and conditions, in accordance with definitions and recognition criteria for assets, liabilities, income and expenses set out in the Conceptual Framework.
Compliance with IFRSs, with additional disclosure when necessary, is presumed to result in fair presentation (IAS 1 par 15).
An entity complying with IFRSs shall make an explicit and unreserved statement of compliance in the notes (IAS 1 par 16).
1.11.2 Going Concern
Management must assess an entity’s ability to continue as a going concern when preparing financial statements.
Financial statements must be prepared on a going-concern basis unless management intends to liquidate or cease trading, or has no realistic alternative but to do so (IAS 1 par 25).
1.11.3 Accrual Basis of Accounting
An entity must prepare financial statements, except for cash flow information, using the accrual basis of accounting (IAS 1 par 27).
When accrual basis is used, items are recognized as assets, liabilities, equity, income, and expenses when they satisfy the definitions and recognition criteria in the Conceptual Framework (IAS 1 par 28).
1.11.4 Materiality and Aggregation
Each material class of similar items shall be presented separately in the financial statements. Items of a dissimilar nature or function shall be presented separately unless they are immaterial (IAS 1 par 29).
1.11.5 Offsetting
Assets and liabilities, and income and expenses, shall not be offset unless required or permitted by a Standard, an Interpretation or an IFRS (IAS 1 par 32).
1.11.6 Frequency of Reporting
An entity must present a complete set of financial statements (including comparative information) at least annually.
When an entity changes the end of its reporting period, additional disclosures are needed if the period is longer/shorter than one year, including the reason and the fact that amounts are not entirely comparable (IAS 1 par 36).
1.11.7 Comparative Information
Except when a Standard, an Interpretation or an IFRS permits or requires otherwise, comparative information must be disclosed for the previous period for all amounts reported in the financial statements (IAS 1 par 38).
Comparative information must be included for narrative and descriptive information when relevant to understanding the current period’s financial statements.
1.11.8 Consistency of Presentation
The presentation and classification of items in the financial statements must be retained from one period to the next (IAS 1 par 45).
Chapter 2: Transactions Notes
2.1 Understanding Manual Accounting in a Computerized World
Textbook will explain accounting through a manual system approach.
View that understanding accounting requires that accounting systems should first be mastered through the understanding of manual accounting systems
Understanding the manual accounting system will assist greatly in understand how computerised accounting systems work.
2.2 Transactions
Every transaction with other parties will influence the financial position of the entity.
Transactions can therefore be described as events which can be measured in terms of money and have a bearing on the financial position of the entity.
Only transactions of financial events have an influence on one or more of the elements of the accounting equation.
A transaction is an action taking place between the business and an entity outside the business.
2.3 The effect of transactions on the financial position
2.3.1 Transactions which influence the asset element of the accounting equation
Purchasing an asset for cash
Payment received from a receivable
2.3.2 Transactions which influence both the asset and the liability elements of the accounting equation
Purchasing an asset on credit
Payment to a payable
2.3.3 Transactions which influence the equity element of the accounting equation
Further investment by the owner
Drawings by the owner
Income transactions
Services rendered for cash
Services rendered on credit
Expense transactions
Expenses paid in cash
Expenses on credit
2.4 Reporting period
The time period for which financial statements are drawn up is known as the reporting period.
The reporting period in example 2.1 was one month.
Financial statements are usually drawn up each month for internal use by management.
The financial statements which are released for external use cover a period of one year.
This period of twelve months, which ends at the same date every year, is known as the reporting period of the entity.
In practice, the end of the reporting period is often determined by the end of the tax year, that is the twelve months for which the entity is taxed.
The closing dates which are used most frequently are 31 December, 28 February and 30 June.
Chapter 3: Ledger Accounts
3.1 Recording transactions
As a result, a more effective system was designed to recognise transactions. This is the account system.
The account forms the basis of this system.
3.2 The account system
In accordance with the account system an account is opened for each item in the accounting equation.
An account is an individual record in which all transactions relating to an item are recognised.
The conventional account has the format of the letter T. It basically consists of the following three parts:
the name of the account written above the horizontal line;
the left-hand side, called the debit side; and
the right-hand side, called the credit side.
An entry on the debit side of an account is called a debit and an entry on the credit side, a credit.
To debit an account means that an entry is made on the left-hand side, and to credit
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