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Secon Wav Wome’ Movemen: USA

Introduction

The Second Wave Women's Movement, which occurred in the latter half of the 20th century in the United States, was a significant civil society protest aimed at addressing ongoing gender inequalities and advocating for women's rights on a global scale. This movement built upon the achievements of the First Wave Women's Movement, which focused on securing women's suffrage and basic legal rights.

Important terms and concepts

1. Feminism: The advocacy of women's rights on the grounds of political, social, and economic equality to men.

2. Second wave women's movement: The feminist movement that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s, focusing on issues such as reproductive rights, workplace equality, and sexual liberation.

3. Patriarchy: A social system in which men hold primary power and dominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property.

4. Sexism: Prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination based on a person's sex, typically against women.

5. Equality: The state of being equal in rights, opportunities, and status.

6. Empowerment: The process of gaining control over one's own life and circumstances, leading to increased confidence, self-worth, and decision-making power.

7. Gender roles: Socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and expectations that a particular society considers appropriate for men and women.

8. Intersectionality: The interconnected nature of social categorisations such as race, class, and gender, which create overlapping systems of discrimination and disadvantage.

9. Stereotype: A widely held but oversimplified and generalized belief or idea about a particular group of people or things.

10. Activism: The policy or action of using vigorous campaigning to bring about political or social change, often associated with advocating for specific causes or rights.

Ultimately, three major streams of thought surfaced within the Women’s Movement. The first was liberal, or mainstream, feminism, which focused its energy on concrete and pragmatic change at an institutional and governmental level. Its goal was to integrate women more thoroughly into the power structure and to give women equal access to positions men had traditionally dominated. While aiming for strict equality (to be evidenced by such measures as an equal number of women and men in positions of power, or an equal amount of money spent on male and female student athletes), these liberal feminist groups nonetheless supported protective legislation such as special workplace benefits for mothers.

In contrast to the pragmatic approach taken by liberal feminism, radical feminism aimed to reshape society and restructure its institutions, which they saw as inherently patriarchal. Providing the core theory for modern feminism, radicals argued that women’s subservient role in society was too closely woven into the social fabric to be unraveled without a revolutionary revamping of society itself. They strove to replace hierarchical and traditional power relationships they saw as reflecting a male bias, and they sought to develop nonhierarchical and anti-authoritarian approaches to politics and organisation.

Finally, cultural or “difference” feminism, the last of the three currents, rejected the notion that men and women are intrinsically the same and advocated celebrating the qualities they associated with women, such as their greater concern for relationships and their nurturing of others. Inherent in its message was a critique of mainstream feminism’s attempt to enter traditionally male spheres. This was seen as deminishing women’s natural inclinations by attempting to make women more like men.

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Context for the Second Wave Women’s Movement in the United States

The foundation for the Second Wave Women's Movement was laid by the background of civil society protest in the USA. The First Wave Women's Movement, emerging in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, paved the way for the Second Wave by securing women's suffrage and legal rights. The Second Wave then expanded its focus to encompass broader issues such as reproductive rights, workplace equality, and education.

The advancement of women's rights globally also played a crucial role in inspiring the Second Wave Women's Movement. The Universal Declaration of

Human Rights, adopted by the United Nations in 1948,

recognised the importance of gender equality, providing a

framework for activists worldwide to advocate for women's rights.

The women’s movement of the 1960s and ’70s, the so-called “second wave” of feminism, represented a seemingly abrupt break with the tranquil suburban life pictured in American popular culture. Yet the roots of the new rebellion were buried in the frustrations of college-educated mothers whose discontent drove their daughters in a new direction. If first-wave feminists

were inspired by the abolition

movement, their great-granddaughters were swept into feminism by the civil rights movement, the attendant discussion of principles such as equality and justice, and the revolutionary provocation caused by protests against the Vietnam War.

American society in the 1950s and 1960s:

● Patriarchal society - dominated by men in positions of

power in government, employment and in the home

● “Traditional women’s roles” - stereotyped role of a woman ○ Expectation was that all women would finish school,

learn to cook, clean, look after a family and care for her husband

● Mother, wife, homemaker

○ Despite increased agency and independence experienced during WWII when women were called into factories, farms, the front line and positions of importance

● Subservient position to men in society

○ Objectification of women as objects or things - especially in sexualised roles

○ Women held very few, if any, positions in society which allowed them to

advocate for their own advancement (political leadership was male dominated) ● Employment:

○ Advertisements segregated job openings by sex

○ Sexual harrassment in the workplace

○ Glass ceiling placed on women (inability to advance to a role higher than

administrative level)

● Reproductive rights

○ Prior to the development of the contraceptive pill, womens sexual

experiences were limited to within a marriage, and dependent on whether they

wanted children

○ This often led to women becoming mothers while

still young and having to choose between

motherhood and further education or a career

○ State laws restricted women’s access to

contraception

○ Incidences of rape and domestic violence remained

undisclosed

○ Objectification of women in society, advertising, on

television was accepted and and encouraged (Playboy magazine was created in 1953 as a men’s lifestyle and entertainment magazine, most famous for its use of nude centerfolds and the Playboy Bunny’s)

Women’s concerns were on President John F. Kennedy’s agenda even before this public discussion began. In 1961 he created the President’s Commission on the Status of Women and appointed Eleanor Roosevelt to lead it. Its report, issued in 1963, firmly supported the nuclear family and preparing women for motherhood. But it also documented a national pattern of employment discrimination, unequal pay, legal inequality, and meagre support services for working women that needed to be corrected through legislative guarantees of equal pay for equal work, equal job opportunities, and expanded child-care services. The Equal Pay Act of 1963 offered the first guarantee, and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was amended to stop employers from discriminating on the basis of sex.

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Unfolding in the context of the anti-war and civil rights movement, the catalyst for second wave feminism was Betty Friedan’s 1963 book, The Feminine Mystique, which criticised the postwar belief that a woman’s role was to marry and bear children. Though her feminist thinking wasn’t

revolutionary—indeed, there were many similar feminist thinkers before Friedan, including Simone de Beauvoir—The Feminine Mystique had a far greater reach, bringing feminism to the attention of everyday women, mothers, and housewives. The feminist movement took off, focusing on public and private injustices, such as rape, reproductive rights, domestic violence, and workplace harassment. Second wave feminists cared deeply about exposing and

overcoming the casual, systemic racism present in society—unlike the suffragists and suffragettes of the nineteenth century, who focused largely on political equality through suffrage. Second wave feminists realised that women’s cultural and political inequalities were inextricably linked. They worked under a unifying goal of social equality, with sexuality and reproductive rights being central concerns to the liberation movement, and with much of the movement’s energy being focused on passing the Equal Rights Amendment.

What did Women Want?

“They want equal pay for equal work, and a chance at jobs traditionally reserved for men only. They seek nationwide abortion reform – ideally, free abortions on demand. They desire round-the-clock, state-supported child-care centers in order to cut the apron strings that confine mothers to unpaid domestic servitude at home. The most radical feminists want far more. Their eschatological aim is to topple the patriarchal system in which men by birthright control all of society’s levers of power – in government, industry, education, science, the arts.” - TIME’s article from August 1970

In “What It Would Be Like If Women Win,” from August 31, 1970, Steinem wrote:

“In Women’s Lib Utopia, there will be free access to good jobs – and decent pay for the bad ones women have been performing all along, including housework. Increased skilled labor might lead to a four-hour workday, and higher wages would encourage further mechanization of repetitive jobs now kept alive by cheap labor. ... Schools and universities will help to break down traditional sex roles, even when parents will not. Half the teachers

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will be men, a rarity now at preschool and elementary levels; girls will not necessarily serve cookies or boys hoist up the flag.”

Women’s Liberation Timeline 1960-1977

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1960 - 1961 -

1963-

‘Operation Bootstrap’ is in effect sterilising one third of Puerto Rican women.

President’s Commission on the Status of Women is formed by John F. Kennedy with Eleanor Roosevelt as chair.

November - Fifty thousand women in sixty cities, mobilised by Women Strike for Peace, protest above ground testing of nuclear bombs.

Birth control pills were approved in 1960 and made available in 1961.

Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique.

Congress passes the Equal Pay Act.

PCSW presents a report to Kennedy documenting discrimination against women.

Some 250,000 people rally in Washington, D.C. and hear Martin Luther King, Jr.'s "I have a dream" speech.

Congress passes the Civil Rights Act that includes Title VII prohibiting discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, or sex .

The War in Vietnam escalates as the US begins bombing North Vietnam.

The Free Speech Movement at Berkeley launches a sit-in and strike to protest restrictions on student political activity. Among the participants are Vivian Rothstein and Jo Freeman who later become organisers in the women's liberation movement

Equal Employment Opportunity Commissioners (EEOC) were appointed to enforce of the Civil Rights Act. Aileen Hernandez, a future president of NOW, was the only woman appointed.

In Griswold v. Connecticut, the Supreme Court strikes down the one remaining state law prohibiting the use of contraceptives.

1964 -

1965 -

1966 - 1967 -

National Organisation for Women (NOW) is created

Women’s Liberation groups begin springing up across the country.

October LBJ signs Executive Order 11375 forbidding sex discrimination in businesses working with the government.

NOW begins petitioning the EEOC to end sex-segregated employment ads. NOW adopts a Bill of Rights for Women.

Introduction of the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) in the US Senate. NY Radical Women formed - organises consciousness raising groups.

New York feminists bury a dummy of "Traditional Womanhood" at the all-women's demonstration against the war in Vietnam in Washington, D.C.

For the first time, feminists use the slogan "Sisterhood is Powerful." First public speakout against abortion laws is held in NYC.

Women protest the Miss America Beauty Pageant in Atlantic City. First national women's liberation conference held in Lake Villa, IL.

Members of Redstockings disrupt a hearing on abortion laws of the New York State legislature when the panel of witnesses turns out to be fourteen men and one nun. They demand repeal, not reform, of abortion laws.

NOW celebrates Mother's Day with the slogan "Rights, Not Roses.

Redstockings, a radical feminist group organises and introduces such terms as "Sisterhood is Powerful", and "The Personal is Political".

August - Tens of thousands of women across the U.S. participate in the "A Women’s Strike Day" to demand equality.

Bella Abzug, Shirley Chisholm, Betty Friedan, Gloria Steinem, and others help found the National Women's Political Caucus.

1968 -

1969 -

1970 - 1971 -

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1972 -

1973 -

1974 -

1975 - 1976 -

New York Radical Feminists hold a series of speakouts and a conference on rape and women's treatment by the criminal justice system.

January- First issue of Ms. Magazine published.

Congress passes Equal Rights Amendment and sends it to the states for consideration.

Phyllis Schlafly attacks the ERA in her newsletter and forms the STOP ERA organisation.

January 22- Supreme Court strikes down many state abortion laws with the Roe v. Wade decision.

Singer Helen Reddy wins a Grammy Award for her song "I Am Woman" which becomes the unofficial anthem of the movement.

The National Black Feminist Organisation is formed.

Equal Credit Opportunity Act passes ending much of the discrimination against women in obtaining credit (needing to have permission from husbands to have a credit card).

Over one thousand colleges and universities offer women's studies courses and eighty have full programs.

United Nations sponsors the First International Conference on Women in Mexico City.

Many professional and women's organisations decide to boycott those states that have not passed the ERA and to hold their conferences elsewhere.

The first marital rape law is enacted in Nebraska, making it illegal for a husband to rape his Wife.

NOW sponsors "Alice Doesn't" Day, and asks women across the country to go on strike for one day.

Joanne Little, who was raped by a guard while in jail, is acquitted of murdering her offender. The case establishes a precedent for killing as self-defense against rape.

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Key Figures in the Movement

During the Second Wave Women's Movement, several key figures emerged. Betty Friedan, author of "The Feminine Mystique", is often credited with sparking the movement by highlighting the discontent experienced by many women in the 1950s and 1960s. Other influential figures include Gloria Steinem, co-founder of Ms. magazine, and Angela Davis, a prominent civil rights activist who connected women's struggles to those of marginalised communities.

Betty Friedan

Betty Friedan, a prominent figure in the Women's Movement, played a pivotal role in advancing the rights and opportunities for women in the 20th century. As the author of "The Feminine Mystique," Friedan challenged the traditional notion that a woman's sole purpose in life was to be a wife and mother. She advocated for gender equality, encouraging women to pursue education and career aspirations. Friedan co-founded the National

Organization for Women (NOW) and served as its first president, fighting for equal pay, reproductive rights, and an end to gender discrimination. While her strategies of grassroots organising and public advocacy were effective in raising awareness and mobilising women across the nation, Friedan also faced criticism from within the movement for her exclusion of minority women and her focus on middle-class white women's experiences. Despite these shortcomings, Friedan's contributions to the Women's Movement remain significant, leaving a lasting impact on the fight for gender equality.

Gloria Steinem

Social activist, writer, editor, and lecturer Gloria Steinem has been an outspoken champion of women's rights since the late 1960s. As a feminist activist, she utilised various strategies to advocate for women's rights and gender equality. Steinem co-founded Ms. Magazine, a publication that aimed to address women's issues and challenge societal norms. Through her writing and speeches, she highlighted the importance of reproductive rights, equal pay, and ending gender discrimination. Steinem's efforts helped raise awareness about the struggles women faced, and she played a significant role in advancing the feminist movement. However, she also faced criticism and challenges along the way. Despite her successes, some feminists criticised her for not adequately addressing the concerns of women of colour and for her

privileged background.

Audre Lorde

A self-described “black, lesbian, mother, warrior, poet,” Audre Lorde dedicated both her life and her creative talent to confronting and addressing injustices of racism, sexism, classism, and homophobia. Audre Lorde dedicated her life to advocating for gender equality and social justice. Through her powerful writings, speeches, and activism, Lorde employed various strategies to challenge societal norms and empower women. She emphasised the importance of intersectionality, recognising that gender inequality cannot be tackled without considering the intersections of race, class, and sexuality. Lorde's works, such as "Sister Outsider" and "The Cancer Journals," shed light on the experiences of marginalised women and encouraged self-acceptance and self-expression.

Angela Davis

African American political activist, author, and educator. In her scholarship and activism, Davis has been an outspoken supporter of civil rights, women's rights, and prisoners' rights. With her unwavering determination and strategic approach, Davis became an influential leader in the fight for women's rights. She emphasised the intersectionality of various forms of oppression, recognising that gender discrimination intersects with racial and class inequalities. Davis actively worked towards dismantling these systems of oppression through her involvement in organisations like the Black Panther Party and the Communist Party USA. While she faced backlash and legal challenges, including being charged with murder, Davis's commitment to her cause remained steadfast. Her successes include mobilising support for political prisoners and raising awareness about the plight of marginalised communities. However, Davis also encountered failures, such as her unsuccessful

bid for political office.

Shirley Chisholm

First African American woman to serve in the United States Congress. Chisholm, a New York Democrat, was a member of the United States House of Representatives from 1969 to 1983. As the first African American woman elected to Congress, she used her platform to advocate for gender and racial equality. Chisholm employed various strategies to advance her cause, including forming alliances and coalitions with like-minded individuals. Her successes were numerous, as she fought tirelessly for the passage of legislation that addressed the needs of marginalised communities. However, Chisholm also faced failures and obstacles along the way, experiencing resistance and discrimination from those who were resistant to change.

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Phylis Schafley

Schlafly, a staunch conservative, began speaking to the women who felt that the feminist movement was not for them – women who enjoyed their roles as mothers and housewives. Schlafly was known for her conservative views and strategies. She strongly opposed the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) and campaigned against it throughout the 1970s. Schlafly believed that the ERA would undermine traditional gender roles and ultimately harm women. Despite facing criticism and opposition from feminists, she successfully mobilised conservative women and played a significant role in preventing the ratification of the ERA. Schlafly's strategies included organising grassroots movements, writing influential books, and

speaking at various events. While she achieved success in her mission to block the ERA, her efforts also highlighted the divisions within the women's movement and sparked debates about feminism and gender equality.

Schlafly, who was known to open her speeches by thanking her husband for letting her attend because “it irritates the women’s libbers,” rallied together the anti-ERA crowd. In Schlafly’s eyes, the ERA would strip away any protections that women had, like child support and exemption from the military draft.

Organisations involved in advancing the rights of Women

Numerous organisations played pivotal roles in the Second Wave Women's Movement. The National Organisation for Women (NOW), founded in 1966, aimed to advocate for gender equality and eradicate discrimination against women. The Women's Liberation Movement, a grassroots movement, focused on consciousness-raising and organising protests to challenge societal norms.

NOW (National Organisation for Women)

The National Organisation for Women (NOW) is one of the most prominent organisations within the women's movement in the United States. Founded on June 30, 1966, NOW played a crucial role in advocating for women's rights and gender equality.

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NOW was established by a group of activists including Betty Friedan, Pauli Murray, and Shirley Chisholm. These visionary activists recognised the need for a national organisation that would address the various issues faced by women in society. Their primary goal was to bring about social and political change through collective action, lobbying the government for legislative protection of women’s rights and advocating for societal change.

The organisation employed a range of tactics and strategies to achieve its objectives. NOW organised protests, demonstrations, and rallies to raise awareness and demand change. They also utilised lobbying efforts to influence legislation and policies that affect women's rights, such as the right to access abortions, contraception, family planning and economic advancements.

One significant success of NOW is the passage of the Equal Credit Opportunity Act in 1974. This legislation prohibited discrimination based on sex in the extension of credit, allowing women to have equal access to financial resources. Another noteworthy achievement was the inclusion of the Pregnancy Discrimination Act in 1978, which made it illegal to discriminate against pregnant women in the workplace.

However, NOW has also faced failures and challenges along the way. Despite their efforts, the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) failed to be ratified by the necessary number of states and fell short of becoming a constitutional amendment. This setback highlighted the ongoing resistance to gender equality and the need for

continued advocacy.

Throughout its history, NOW has continued to evolve and adapt to the changing needs of women. The organisation expanded its focus to address issues such as reproductive rights, violence against women, and workplace discrimination.

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Womens Liberation Union (WLU)

The Women's Liberation Union (WLU) was one of the prominent organisations within the women's movement during the late 1960s and early 1970s. Founded in 1968, the WLU played a crucial role in advocating for women's rights and challenging the existing patriarchal norms of society.

The WLU was composed of diverse members from various backgrounds, including students, professionals, and activists. Women from all walks of

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life joined forces, united by their common goal of achieving gender equality. The organisation provided a platform for women to voice their concerns and experiences, emphasising the belief that "the personal is political." This phrase encapsulated the idea that personal experiences of discrimination and oppression were not isolated incidents but rather systemic issues that needed to be addressed collectively.

The Women's Liberation Union was a decentralised organisation without a formal leadership structure. Instead, decision-making was based on consensus and participatory democracy. This approach allowed all members to have a voice and actively contribute to the organisation's strategies and actions.

In terms of tactics and strategies, the WLU employed a range

of methods to raise awareness and promote change. These

included organising protests, demonstrations, and public

rallies to challenge gender inequality and demand equal

rights for women. They also utilised grassroots organising,

consciousness-raising groups, and educational initiatives to empower women and foster a sense of sisterhood.

The Women's Liberation Union achieved notable successes in their fight for women's rights. They played a pivotal role in advocating for reproductive rights and access to safe and legal abortions. Their efforts also contributed to the passage of the Title IX legislation in 1972, which prohibited gender discrimination in educational institutions. Additionally, the WLU's activism helped challenge societal norms and stereotypes, paving the way for greater opportunities and representation for women in various fields.

New York Radical Women

However, the Women's Liberation Union also faced challenges and encountered failures along the way. The movement experienced internal divisions and ideological disagreements, which led to splintering and the formation of different factions. These divisions sometimes hindered the movement's effectiveness and undermined its potential for broader impact. Furthermore, the WLU faced backlash and criticism from those who opposed feminist ideologies, which often resulted in negative portrayals and misrepresentations in the media.

A noticeable organisation within the Womens Liberation Union, the New York Radical Women were a loose-knit but radical organisation founded in New York in late 1967. The organisation is well-known for two major protests in which they were involved:

1. The Jeannette Rankin Brigade March in Washington in 1968, the “Burial of Traditional Womanhood”. The Brigade march was a large gathering of women's groups who protested the Vietnam War as grieving wives, mothers, and daughters. NYRW invited the Brigade attendees to join them in a mock burial of women's traditional roles at Arlington National Cemetery.

2. MissAmericaPageantprotest

About 400 women come together from across the United States to protest outside the Annual Miss America Pageant

in 1968 in Atlanta. The women symbolically threw a

number of "feminine" aligned products into a large

trash can called “freedom trash cans”, in opposition

to patriarchal society. These included mops, pots

and pans, Playboy magazines, false eyelashes,

high-heeled shoes, curlers, hairspray, makeup,

items the protestors called "instruments of female

torture." Carol Hanisch, one of the protest

organisers, said "We had intended to burn it, but the

police department, since we were on the boardwalk, wouldn't let us do the burning."

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Along with tossing the items into the trash can, they marched with signs, passed out pamphlets, and crowned a live sheep, comparing the beauty pageant to livestock competitions at county fairs. During the live telecast, the women displayed from the balcony a banner that said "Women's Liberation." Although this event is often thought to be where "bra-burning" took place, their actual symbolic protest consisted of placing bras, girdles, Playboy magazines, mops, and other evidence of the oppression of women into a trash can, but not lighting the objects on fire.

NYRW said that the pageant not only

judged women based on ludicrous

beauty standards, but supported the

immoral Vietnam War by sending the

winner to entertain the troops. They

also protested the racism of the

pageant, which had never yet

crowned a Black Miss America.

Because millions of viewers watched

the pageant, the event brought the

women's liberation movement a great deal of public awareness and media coverage.

By 1969, ideological differences split the group into a radical feminist faction and a socialist feminist (or "politico") faction. Tension grew between the two splinter groups until 1969 when the organisation fell apart. Socialist feminists left to form Women's International Terrorist Conspiracy from Hell (W.I.T.C.H.), while radical feminists started the Redstockings.

Redstockings

The Redstrockings strongly advocated for “consciousness raising” and what they referred to as "The Pro-Woman Line". Consciousness raising was the act by which the theory of "the personal is the political '' met practice, and was more essential to Redstockings' feminist than organisational membership.

One of the group's earliest actions was in 1969, when members stormed a hearing of the New York State Joint Legislative Committee on Public Health, which

was considering abortion law reform. They objected to the hearing, asking: "Why are 14 men and

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only one woman on your list of speakers—and she's a nun?". The committee chairman countered that these were the experts on the subject, which further enraged the Redstockings women, whose position was that there were no better experts on abortion than women, and that abortion law needed to be repealed rather than reformed.

A month later the Redstockings held its own "hearing", an open meeting in the Washington Square Methodist Church, where twelve women testified about their experiences with illegal abortion. The "speakout" was Redstockings' opportunity to hear testimony of those they felt were the experts: "We are the true experts, the only experts, we who have had abortions," one of the twelve said. One of the women in attendance was Gloria Steinem, who would years later identify the meeting as a milestone in her feminist activism.

Forms of Protest used in the Women’s Movement

Forms of protest used during the Women's Movement varied and evolved over time. Peaceful demonstrations, such as marches and rallies, provided a platform for women to voice their demands and raise awareness. Sit-ins, where activists occupied public spaces, were also utilised to draw attention to specific issues. Additionally, the movement embraced civil disobedience and acts of nonviolent resistance to challenge societal norms and demand change.

Mainstream groups such as the National Organisation for Women (NOW) launched a campaign for legal equity, while ad hoc groups staged sit-ins and marches for any number of reasons—from assailing college curricula that lacked female authors to promoting the use of the word Ms. as a neutral form of address—that is, one that did not refer to marital status. Health collectives and rape crisis centres were established. Children’s books were rewritten to remove sexual stereotypes. Women’s studies departments were founded at colleges and universities. Protective labour laws were overturned. Employers found to have discriminated against female workers were

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required to compensate with back pay. Excluded from male-dominated occupations for decades, women began finding jobs as pilots, construction workers, soldiers, bankers, and bus drivers.

1. Consciousness-Raising Groups: Activists formed small groups where women could openly discuss their personal experiences and societal challenges. These groups provided a platform for women to share their stories, analyse their common struggles, and collectively identify areas for change.

2. Protest Marches and Rallies: Large-scale marches and rallies were organised to raise awareness and demand action on women's rights issues. One iconic event was the Women's Strike for Equality held on August 26, 1970, which marked the 50th anniversary of the 19th Amendment and called for equal rights for women in all aspects of life.

3. Civil Disobedience: Activists

engaged in acts of civil

disobedience to challenge discriminatory laws and practices. For instance, in 1969, a group of women in New York City organised a sit-in at a popular restaurant to protest its discriminatory hiring policies. Such acts aimed to disrupt the status quo and draw attention to gender inequality.

4. Legal Advocacy: Activists pursued legal avenues to challenge discriminatory laws and secure women's rights. One significant achievement was the landmark Supreme Court case Roe v. Wade in 1973, which legalised abortion in the United States. This decision was a result of persistent efforts by activists and organisations dedicated to reproductive rights.

5. Formation of Women's Organisations: Numerous organisations emerged during this period to advocate for women's rights. The National Organisation for Women (NOW), founded in 1966, played a crucial role in advancing gender equality through lobbying, litigation, and public awareness campaigns. Other notable organisations included the Women's Liberation Movement and the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom.

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6. Media and Publications: Activists utilised various forms of media to spread their message and challenge societal norms. They published newsletters, magazines, and books to raise awareness about women's issues, promote feminist theories, and inspire collective action. Notable publications during this time include "Ms. Magazine," which was first published in 1972 and became a prominent voice for the women's movement.

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Successes from the Women’s Movement

The Second Wave Women's Movement achieved significant successes, although it also faced some failures. One of the major accomplishments was the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) in 1972, aiming to guarantee equal legal rights for all American citizens regardless of their sex. However, the ERA failed to be ratified by the required number of states, reflecting the challenges faced by the movement. Despite this failure there were a number of social, political and economic successes of the movement.

● Contraceptive Pill

○ The approval of the contraceptive pill by the Food and Drug Administration in 1960 gave women more control over their reproductive rights—within five years, around 6 million women were using it.

○ Reproductive freedom and choice

○ Griswold v Conneticut

■ In 1965, the landmark Supreme Court case of Griswold v. Connecticut affirmed the right to privacy in the context of marital relationships. The case challenged a Connecticut law that criminalised the use of contraceptives, even within marriages. The court ruled that such a law violated the right to privacy, which is not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution but is inferred from various amendments. This decision marked a significant turning point in the history of reproductive rights in the United States, laying the foundation for future legal battles and the eventual recognition of access to contraception as a fundamental right.

● Consciousness

○ “In terms of real power – economic and political – we are still just beginning. But the consciousness, the awareness – that will never be the same,” Gloria Steinem stated at the National Women’s Conference held in November 1977.

○ Awareness around domestic violence was raised, and gender and women’s studies departments were founded at universities and colleges.

● Legislative change and judicial and political progress

○ 1. Equal Pay Act

○ 2. Roe v. Wade (1973) legalised abortion

■ In 1973, the landmark Supreme Court case Roe v. Wade solidified the legal right to abortion in the United States. The case originated when a woman named Jane Roe, a pseudonym for Norma McCorvey, challenged the constitutionality of a Texas law that criminalised abortion, except to save the life of the mother. The Supreme Court, in a 7-2 decision, held that a woman's right

to privacy, as protected by the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, includes the right to choose to have an abortion. This ruling established a framework for abortion rights, recognising that during the first trimester, a woman has the right to choose without undue interference from the government.

○ 3. Title IX (1972) prohibited sex discrimination in education

○ 4. Equal Credit Opportunity Act (1974) allowed women to have credit in their

own names

○ 5. The Pregnancy Discrimination Act (1978) prohibited discrimination based on

pregnancy

○ 6. The National Women's Political Caucus was founded in 1971

○ Feminists gained women the right to hold credit cards and apply for mortgages

in their own name and outlawed marital rape.

● Equal Rights Amendment 1972

○ As the feminist wave swept across the country, the support for ERA picked up even more steam.

○ The amendment was passed by both houses of Congress and President Richard Nixon in 1972, and was sent off to be ratified into law by the states. At the end of 1973, the ERA only needed five more states to ratify it by March 1979 in order to get the three-fourths approval it required.

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● TIME Magazine awarded its “Person of the Year” title to “American Women” in 1975. The article explained:

○ “They have arrived like a new immigrant wave in male America. They may be cops, judges, military officers, telephone lineman, cab drivers, pipefitters, editors, business executives – or mothers and housewives, but not quite the same subordinate creatures they were before. Across the broad range of American life, from suburban tract houses to state legislatures, from church pulpits to Army barracks, women’s lives are profoundly changing, and with them, the traditional relationships between the sexes. ...1975 was not so much the Year of the Woman as the Year of the Women – an immense variety of women altering their lives, entering new fields, functioning with a new sense of identity, integrity and confidence.”

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Failures in the Movement

Although the feminist movement of the 1960s and 1970s experienced some successes in the form of legislative and social changes for women, there were challenges facing the movement too.

1. LackofBlackvoice

● This wave of feminism was largely defined and led by educated, middle-class white American women, so the movement was centered on issues affecting white women. Alienated women of colour viewed white feminists as incapable of understanding their concerns. Black women became increasingly excluded from the central platforms of the mainstream women’s movement, which didn’t view the issues of women of colour, such as stopping the forced sterilisation of people of colour and people with

disabilities, as a priority.

2. Opposition from women who believed that equal rights would force them into situations, such as Phylis Schlafly created factions within the movement itself. Radical feminists as well as conservatives limited the advancements made by the movement by undermining the progress from within the sector fighting for change.

3. Legallimitations

● Equal Rights Amendment not ratified by enough states

● Limited progress was made on paid maternity leave

● Despite the Equal Pay Act, gender pay gap still exists

● There is still a lack of female representation in political office an in high ranking

positions in companies

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